Table 3.

Sources and components of other cell-derived exosomes, their mechanisms, and their functions.

Source of Exosomes	Component	Mechanism	Function	Experiment Type	Reference
Macrophages		Modulating microglial polarity	Anti-inflammation	In vitro and in vivo	[96]
Macrophages		Drp1-Fis1 interaction	Reduce mitochondrial damage in astrocytes	In vitro and in vivo	[97]
Macrophage		Targets neuronal cells and microglia	Reduce inflammation response	In vivo	[98]
Macrophages		Downregulating ROS	Protect BBB and antagonize neuronal apoptosis	In vitro and in vivo	[99]
M2 macrophages		Activate Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway	Inhibit ROS, protect HT22 neurons	In vitro	[100]
Dental pulp stem cell		Inhibit HMGB1/TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway	Anti-inflammation	In vitro and in vivo	[102]
USCs		MiR-26a/HDAC6 axis	Promote neurogenesis	In vitro and in vivo	[103]
USCs	miR-21-5p	EPha4/TEK axis	Promote neurogenesis	In vitro and in vivo	[104]
Olfactory mucosa MSCs	miR-612-TP53-HIF-1α-VEGF axis		Promote the formation of HBMECs	In vitro and in vivo	[105]
HUECs	miR-1290	Cav-1 upregulates intake of HUECs-EVs	Attenuates apoptosis	In vitro and in vivo	[101]
Intestinal epithelium cells	miRNA		Promote apoptosis, necroptosis, and/or pyroptosis of cortical neurons	In vitro	[106]
MC-ELNs		AKT/GSK3β signaling pathway	Protect BBB and anti-apoptosis	In vivo	[107]
MCEs			Inhibit platelet activation, aggregation, adhesion, and HCT116 cells migration	In vitro and in vivo	[108]

USCs, urine-derived stem cells; MSCs, mesenchymal stem cells; HUECs, human umbilical endothelial cell; MC, momordica charantia; ELNs, exosome-like nanoparticles; MCEs, MC-exosomes.