Table 3.

Advantages and disadvantages of various non-thermal processing technologies.

Technologies	Advantages	Disadvantages	Storage Life	References
Pulsed electric field	Low energy consumption Short processing time Waste-free process	High initial investment Less efficient for spore inactivation Presence of bubbles effect uniformity Low economic	Improve tenderization and water holding capacity, less physiological effects due to partial disruption of cellular tissues, increase shelf life of meat	[107]
Ohmic treatment	Quick process Relatively uniform heating	High initial cost Relatively electrolytic effect
Enzymatic treatment	More recovery yields Low contamination High selectivity rate	High enzymes cost Prolong processing time Low-efficiency rate	Increased shelf life through reducing oxidative spoilage, microbial activity, improve textural properties	[131]
Fluorescence spectroscopy	High data achievement rate Simple and more economic	Time consumption in sample preparation Not suitable for solid material detection Highly selective method	Improve protein functionality and conformational changes during protein denaturation	[112]
Nuclear magnetic resonance	High data evaluation Non-destructive and non-intrusive	High cost-effective Highly expensive equipment	Improve sensory properties, chemical composition, nutritional and physicochemical properties	[132]
Fermentation	More economical Environmentally friendly Useful for bioactive extraction Poor energy consumption	Slow process Recovery yield and quality effect by microorganism used	Reduce microbial proliferation, prevent foodborne pathogens, reduce microbial proliferation, therefore, extending shelf life	[133]
High hydrostatic pressure	Energy efficient High preservative quality Easy to commercialize Wide range of microorganism inactivation	Cost-effective Less efficient for spore’s inactivation Limited packaging facility	Prolonged shelf life up to 2 months at 2 oC, reduce microbial load and food spoilage genera, improve quality	[134]
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)	Rapid and reliable Sensitive to conformational changes under various conditions Independent of the physical condition of samples	Nonlinear problems of the curve High cost Strong IR absorbance of H2O	Monitored microbial spoilage, texture and colour attributes, authenticate freshness attributes	[114]
Raman spectroscopy	Required small size sample Less expensive instrumentations Non-destructive	Higher instrumental costs Stronger biological fluorescence interference Heat effect generated by the laser	Increase shelf life, improve protein and water contents, reduce microbial load	[135]
Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy	Rapid and non-destructive Non-contact and cost-effective	Accuracy depends on the reliability of the reference method Does not provide spatial information on the sample Contain unnecessary and redundant information	Reduce microbial spoilage, predict compositional changes, reduce foodborne pathogens	[136]
Visible near-infrared (VIS/NIR) spectroscopy	Non-contact Rapid Non-destructive	Non-independent requires samples with known analyte concentration Specular highlights and uneven illumination under varying sample surface	Reduce oxidation, optimize product quality, increase shelf life	[137]
Nuclear magnetic resonance/magnetic resonance imaging (NMR/MRI) spectroscopy	Cost-effective Non-destructive	Slow process High initial cost Expensive equipment	Food authentication, detect alteration and unwanted compounds.	[138]
Ultrafiltration	High energy efficiency Better quality permeates Continuous recovery	Time-consuming Expensive membranes	Extend shelf life, reduce disruption of cells, inhibit microbial spoilage	[139]
Supercritical fluid extraction	Environmentally friendly Rapidly penetrate in sample Mild processing conditions Low processing wastes	Complex equipment Required a high pressure Use of modifiers	Minimal disruption of tissue cells, improve quality, reduce bacterial count, improve shelf life	[140]