Table 6.

Probiotic-derived bEVs against BBB-invading pathogens.

Origin of bEV	Physiological Roles	Invading Pathogen(s)	References
Burkholderia thailandensis with quinolone	Synergistic antibiofilm activity	Streptococcus spp.	[158]
E. coli Nissle 1917	Increased anti-inflammatory properties, such as IL-10 and T helper (TH) cell-mediated cytotoxicity	E. coli and S. aureus	[159]
L. crispatus and L. jensenii	Antibiofilm and anti-inflammatory effect	Candida albicans	[160]
L. paracasei and L. plantarum	Decrease pro-inflammatory cytokine production	Enteroinvasive E. coli	[161]