Table 2.
Biopolymeric nanoparticle-based carriers of fungicides used to target pathogenic fungi.
| Fungicide | Nanoparticles | Crop | Targeted Pest | Toxicity or Soil Leaching | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pyraclostrobin | Chitosan–PLA graft copolymer | - | C. gossypii Southw | - | [86] |
| Imidazole (prochloraz) | Silica–alginate | - | - | - | [93] |
| Carbendazim and tebuconazole | Polymeric and solid lipid NPs | Bean seeds | - | Mouse fibroblast cells and soil sorption | [12] |
| Propiconazole | Chitosan | Wheat (T. aestivium) | Fusarium head blight by F. graminearum | - | [94] |
| Chitosan NPs | Chitosan | Rice | Rice blast by fungus Pyricularia grisea | - | [95] |
| Chitosan and its NPs | Chitosan | Wheat | Fusarium head blight by Fusarium graminearum | Maximum inhibition at 5000 ppm | [94] |
| Ketoconazole | Chitosan–gallen gum nanocomposite | - | Aspergillus niger | - | [96] |
| Pyraclostrobin | Chitosan and MSN | - | Homopsis asparagi (Sacc.) | - | [97] |
| Hexaconazole | Chitosan and tripolyphosphate (TPP) | - | R. solani | Vero cell lines | [98] |
| Mancozeb | Chitosan- gum acacia | Tomato | A. alternata, S. lycopersici | - | [99] |
| - | Cu–chitosan nanocomposite | - | R. solani and S. rolfsii | - | [100] |
| Cymbopogon martini essential oil * | Chitosan | Maize grains | F. graminearum | - | [101] |
| Copper-oxy-chloride | Chitosan copper oxide/zinc oxides | Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) | F. oxysporum f. sp. ciceri (FOC) | - | [9] |
| Metalaxyl | Chitosan | Millet | Downy mildew caused by Sclerospora graminicol | - | [102] |
| Chitosan NPs | Chitosan | - | A. tenuis, A. flavus, F. graminearum, F. oxysporum, S. rolfsii | Zearalenone production inhibited at 800 ppm | [103] |
| Spinosad | Chitosan–isoleucine | - | Fusarium oxysporum | Protection against photo-degradation | [90] |
| Clove essential oil * | Chitosan | - | A. niger | - | [104] |
| Chitosan and its NPs | Chitosan | Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) | C. gelosporidies, Phytophthora capsici, S. sclerotiorum, F. oxysporum, G. fujikuori | - | [89] |
| Hexaconazole-dazomet | Chitosan | Palm | Basal stem rot disease by G. boninense | A 74.5% reduction in disease | [91] |
| Azoxystrobin, pyraclostrobin, tebuconazole, and boscalid | Lignin | Vitis vinifera | Grapevine trunk disease by Phaeomoniella chlamydospora and Phaeoacremonium minimum | Test fungi growth inhibition after 96 h in vitro | [92] |
| Mancozeb | Chitosan–carrageenan | Potato and tomato, |
A. solani, A. alternata, S. lycopersici, Sclerotinia
Sclerotiorum |
Showed good antifungal efficacy in vitro and in vivo | [105] |
| Mancozeb | Chitosan–gum acacia | Potato | Early blight and stem rot (Alternaria solani, Sclerotinia Sclerotiorum) |
Inhibition of 83.8 and 100%, respectively | [106] |
| Mancozeb | Chitosan | Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) | Fusarium wilt | Inhibited the disease in vitro | [107] |
* Oils/extracts with fungicidal activity that act at specific target sites but are not classed as fungicides.