Table 2.
A review of adjuvant and delivery systems against foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) published in the last few years.
| Type | Adjuvant or Delivery System | Mechanism | Applicable Vaccines |
|---|---|---|---|
| Saponin | The imine carbonyl group formed contributes to T-cell activation (inducing Th1/Th2 response) and permeabilizes cell membranes [78,79,80] | Adenovirus vector vaccine | |
| CAvant ® SOE (CA V AC, Daejeon, Korea) | Delivery of antigens to APCs or by direct stimulation of immune cells [112] | Inactivated viruses | |
| Agonists | Cationic liposomes and monophosphate liposome A | VLP is encapsulated in a cationic liposome and/or MPL based on DDA [86] | VLP vaccine |
| Agonists | Heparin-binding hemagglutinin (HBHA) | The multi-epitope immunogen HAO of serotype O and A FMDV was combined with HBHA, a novel TLR4 agonist [87] | VLP vaccine |
| Agonists | CVC1302 | Contains three PRR agonists that can increase B-cell numbers to increase antibody response [83,113] | Multi-epitope recombinant vaccine |
| Chinese herbal medicine | Panax ginseng stem and leaf saponins | The carbohydrate groups on the saponin molecule can interact with receptors on the APCs, and the acyl domain can facilitate the entry of antigens into the APCs [88] | Inactivated viruses |
| Chinese herbal medicine | Crude polysaccharides of Cistanche deserticola (CPCD) | DCs were activated by TLR-2 and TLR-4, and MAPKs and NF-κB pathway were induced [89] | Inactivated viruses |
| Chinese herbal medicine | Artemisia rupestris L., (AEAR) | Increase serum antibody titers, enhance cytokine secretion, and stimulate T-cell-mediated immune responses [90] | Inactivated viruses |
| Chinese herbal medicine | Achyranthes bidentata Polysaccharide (ABP) | The stable polysaccharide nanoemulsion delivery system can better deliver antigen and promote immune enhancement [91] | VLP vaccine |
| Noncoding synthetic RNAs | IRES, S and 3′NCR domains transcribed in vitro from plasmids induce a powerful antiviral response [92] | Inactivated viruses | |
| Nanoparticle polymers | Mesoporous silica | Unique center–radial hole structure for greater load capacity and control of FMDV release rate [97,98,99,103] | Inactivated viruses |
| Nanoparticle polymers | Chitosan (CP) | The flexible configuration and deformation of the vaccine particles can increase the contact area with cells [100,101,102] | VLP vaccine and inactivated vaccine |
| Nanoparticle polymers | Gold nanocages (AuNCs) | Proteins can bind to gold nanomaterials by electrostatic interaction, hydrophobicity and Au-S bond cooperation [104] | VLP vaccine |
| Nanoparticle polymers | Layered dihydroxide (LDH) | These particles, with interspace layers that can be loaded with antigens, provide improved and sustained delivery of antigen in vivo [107] | Inactivated viruses |