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. 2022 Nov 20;23(22):14434. doi: 10.3390/ijms232214434

Table 3.

Summary of study outcomes.

Model Treatments Primary Outcomes
Cell/Cell Culture Studies
β-cell lines 1,25D Improved maintenance of normal cell function with cytokines [19]
Increased β-cell proliferation [22]
Reduced ER stress and apoptosis in the presence of H2O2 [23]
Effects on cell survival unclear: pro-survival [19,24], no effect [20]
Isolated rat β-cells 1,25D Reduced cytokine overexpression, no change cellular apoptosis when treated with cytokines [20]
Improved islet insulin release [28]
Human islets 1,25D Reduced apoptosis [19,27]
Human IPS β-like cells Calcipotriol Reduced apoptosis in presence of IL-1β [17]
Animal Studies
NOD mice Analogues Improved β-cell survival and decreased insulitis [30]
Reduced incidence of T1D and improved pancreatic insulin [20,31,32]
Decreased progression to T1D (mice lacking Ins2 gene) [32]
Improved efficacy of islet transplants and delayed recurrence of autoimmune diabetes [33]
1,25D Reduced incidence of T1D and improved pancreatic insulin [31]
VDR mice Transgenic Preservation of β-cell mass following STZ [35]
Null Develop hypocalcaemia and β-cell dysfunction [37] which is ameliorated by rescue diet (high calcium, lactulose, phosphate) [38]
C57Bl/6 mice 1,25D Improved blood glucose and serum insulin when treated with low-dose STZ [24]
Diabetic Wistar rats Vitamin D Improved β-cell function and HbA1c [36]
Human Studies
Early life Supplementation with vitamin D Reduced risk of T1D development intake of vitamin D and risk of type 1 diabetes: a birth-cohort study [55,59]
Conflicting evidence regarding increased maternal vitamin D intake (pro No effect of the 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on beta-cell residual function and insulin requirement in adults vs. no effect [58]
Recent onset T1D 25D Beneficial effects on C-peptide levels over time (trend to slower decrease in C-peptide [62], if not elevated C-peptide levels [66]
Analogues Lower insulin dose and enhanced C-peptide (boys only) [68]
Recent onset T1D 1,25D Lower insulin requirements at 3 and 6 months [64]
25D Enhanced/higher C-peptide levels [65,73,74]
Lower insulin requirements [67]
Improved HbA1c [73]
Analogues Slower decline in HbA1c levels over time [69]
Human Studies (Negative/Null Findings)
Recent onset T1D Combined Rx + D Study in children. No beneficial effects [63]
Recent onset T1D 1,25D No effects on β-cell function [60,71,72]