Table 4.
Treatment effects of included studies
| No | Author(s) | Year | Programme and benefits (adjusted for inflation, showing 2022 value) |
Outcome description | Treatment effect | Statistical information | Data source |
| Individual randomised controlled trials | |||||||
| 1 | Grépin et al31 | 2019 | M-Kadi (Kenya) US$29.5 per pregnancy |
Four or more ANC visits | 0.045 RC (6.9% increase) |
Control: 0.65 95% CI: NA SE: 0.068 P>0.1 |
Registers and survey (conducted by programme) |
| Cluster randomised controlled trials | |||||||
| 2 | Barber and Gertler27 | 2010 | Oportunidades (Mexico) US$172.5 per pregnancy |
Any prenatal care | 0.034 RC (3.6% increase) |
Control: 0.943 95% CI: NA SE: 0.236 |
Survey (ENCEL survey, socioeconomic survey and fertility survey) |
| Obtained five prenatal care visits | 0.015 RC (2% increase) |
Control: 0.742 95% CI: NA SE: 0.130 |
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| Number of prenatal visits | −0.0348 RC (0.5% decrease) |
Control: 6.40 95% CI: NA SE: 0.037 |
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| 3 | Kandpal et al36 | 2016 | Pantawid Pamilya (Philippines) US$57.5–US$167.5 per pregnancy |
Four or more ANC visits | 7.648 RC (13.9% increase) |
Control: 54.911 95% CI −3.148 to 18.443 P>0.1 |
Survey (specific impact evaluation, Family Income and Expenditure Survey and NDHS) |
| Number of times ANC was received | 0.596 RC (14.4% increase) |
Control: 4.147 95% CI −0.088 to 1.280 P=0.09 |
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| 4 | Okeke and Abubakar29 | 2020 | CCT programme (Nigeria) US$15 per pregnancy |
Number of prenatal visits attended | 0.471 RC (19.8% increase) |
Control: 2.378 95% CI: NA SE: 0.0655 P<0.01 |
Survey (conducted by programme) |
| 5 | Triyana26 | 2016 | Program Keluarga Harapan (Indonesia) US$52.5–US$191.5 per pregnancy |
Prenatal visits | 0.084 RC (1.2% increase) |
Control: 7.00 95% CI: NA SE: 0.317 P>0.1 |
Survey (conducted by National Planning Agency and World Bank) |
| 6 | Vanhuyse et al30 | 2022 | Afya Credits Incentive (Kenya) US$31.5 per pregnancy Nurses receive US$5 for each woman enrolled in the CCT programme. |
Antenatal care appointments attended | 1.90 OR (odds of ANC being 1.9 times higher than control group) |
Control: NA 95% CI 1.36 to 2.66 P<0.001 |
Survey (conducted by programme) Electronic card reading system |
| Controlled before-after studies (all applied difference-in-differences methodology) | |||||||
| 7 | Kusuma et al37 | 2016 | Program Keluarga Harapan (Indonesia) US$52.5–US$191.5 per pregnancy |
Four or more prenatal visits | 0.039 RC (5.7% increase) |
Control: 0.68 95% CI: NA SE: 0.023 P<0.1 |
Survey (conducted by National Planning Agency and World Bank) |
| 8 | de Brauw and Peterman35 | 2020 | Comunidades Solidarias Rurales (El Salvador) US$145.5–US$194 per pregnancy |
Five or more prenatal visits | −0.102 RC (13.7% decrease) |
Control: 0.744 95% CI: NA SE: 0.073 P=0.206 |
Survey (conducted by IFPRI and FUSADES) |
| 9 | Díaz and Saldarriaga41 | 2019 | JUNTOS (Peru) US$343.5 per pregnancy |
Number of prenatal appointments | 0.328 RC (4.7% increase) |
Control: 7.009 95% CI: NA SE: 0.148 P<0.05 |
Survey (Peruvian DHS) |
| One or more ANC visits | 0.028 RC (2.9% increase) |
Control: 0.955 95% CI: NA SE: 0.011 P<0.05 |
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| Four or more ANC visits | 0.048 RC (5.5% increase) |
Control: 0.876 95% CI: NA SE: 0.017 P<0.01 |
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| 10 | Edmond et al34 | 2019 | CCT programme (Afghanistan) US$16.5 per pregnancy Community health workers receive US$5.5 for each facility-based delivery. |
One or more ANC visits | 45.0% AMD (45.0% higher than control group) |
Control: NA 95% CI 0.18 to 0.72 P=0.004 |
Survey HMIS |
| 11 | Chakrabarti et al39 | 2021 | Mamata Scheme (India) US$70 per pregnancy Community health workers receive US$2.5 per programme beneficiary. |
Four or more ANC visits | 1.51 OR (odds of ANC being 1.51 times higher than control group) |
Control: NA 95% CI 1.15 to 1.99 |
Survey (NFHS second, third and fourth waves) |
| 12 | Powell-Jackson et al38 | 2015 | Safe Motherhood Programme (India) US$8.5–US$20.5 per pregnancy Community health workers receive US$3 for each facility-based delivery. |
Three or more ANC visits | 0.010 RC (2.2% increase) |
Control: 0.45 95% CI: NA SE: 0.0073 P>0.1 |
Survey (DLHS-II and DLHS-III) |
| 13 | Aizawa40 | 2020 | Safe Motherhood Programme (India) US$8.5–US$20.5 per pregnancy Community health workers receive US$3 for each facility-based delivery. |
Three or more ANC visits | 0.0962 RC (22.9% increase) |
Control: 0.42 95% CI: NA SE: 0.0113 P<0.01 |
Survey (NFHS third and fourth waves) |
| 14 | Joshi and Sivaram32 | 2014 | Safe Motherhood Programme (India) US$8.5–US$20.5 per pregnancy Community health workers receive US$3 for each facility-based delivery. |
Three or more ANC visits | −0.004 RC (1.3% decrease) |
Control: 0.298 95% CI: NA SE: 0.010 P>0.1 |
Survey (DLHS-II and DLHS-III) |
| 15 | Lim et al42 | 2010 | Safe Motherhood Programme (India) US$8.5–US$20.5 per pregnancy Community health workers receive US$3 for each facility-based delivery. |
Three or more ANC visits | 10.7% (increase among treatment group, using ‘exact matching’) | Control: NA 95% CI 0.091 to 0.123 |
Survey (DLHS-II and DLHS-III) |
| 11.1% (increase among treatment group, using ‘with vs without’) | Control: NA 95% CI 0.101 to 0.121 |
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| 10.9% (increase among treatment group, using ‘difference-in-differences’) | Control: NA 95% CI 0.046 to 0.172 |
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| 16 | Debnath44 | 2021 | Safe Motherhood Programme (India) US$8.5–US$20.5 per pregnancy Community health workers receive US$3 for each facility-based delivery. |
Any prenatal care | 0.022 RC (2.4% increase) |
Control: 0.908 95% CI 0.013 to 0.032 SE: 0.005 P<0.01 |
Survey (DLHS-II and DLHS-III) |
| Interrupted time series analysis | |||||||
| 17 | Powell-Jackson et al43 | 2009 | Safe Delivery Incentive Programme (Nepal) US$21 per pregnancy Healthcare provider receives US$6.5 per assisted delivery. |
Number of ANC visits | 0.031 RC (2.5% increase) Using quartic time function |
Control: 1.235 T-statistic: 0.38 95% CI: NA |
Community surveillance system data set |
| −0.046 RC (3.7% decrease) Using quadratic time function |
Control: 1.235 T-statistic: −0.75 95% CI: NA |
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| 18 | Okoli et al33 | 2014 | SURE-P/MCH (Nigeria) US$35.5 per pregnancy |
Four or more ANC visits | 15.1152 RC (increase of 15.1 visits per 100 000 population) |
Control: NA T-statistic: 4.13 P=0.001 95% CI 7.38 to 22.85 |
Programme monitoring data (from facility logbooks) |
| Number of first ANC visits | −8.3150 RC (decrease of 8.3 visits per 100 000 population) |
Control: NA T-statistic: −1.29 P=0.213 95% CI −21.87 to 5.24 |
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Treatment effects include regression coefficients (RC), odds ratios (OR), adjusted means difference (AMD) or other types described in full. Financial benefits are maximum amounts and can vary among beneficiaries depending on compliance with conditions. Amounts per pregnancy presented in 2022 values using US Inflation Calculator.24
ANC, antenatal care; CCT, conditional cash transfer; CI, confidence interval; DHS, Demographic and Health Survey; DLHS, District Level Health Survey; ENCEL, Encuesta Evaluation de los Hogares; FUSADES, Fundación Salvadoreña para El Desarrollo Económico y Social; HMIS, Health Management Information System; IFPRI, International Food Policy Research Institute; NA, not available; NDHS, National Demographic and Health Survey; NFHS, National Family Health Survey; SE, standard error; SURE-P/MCH, Subsidy Reinvestment and Empowerment Programme/Maternal and Child Health.