Table 4. Results of the models investigating biases in lion population assessments in Africa, accounting for geographical range (Negative Binomial GLM).

For residuals of individual countries, a positive value indicates more assessments than expected after controlling for the relevant variables, a negative value fewer. Significant residual values (defined as zero not contained within the 95% highest density interval (HDI) of the posterior distribution) are highlighted. Names of fixed effects and of countries are in bold if the variable exhibits a significant (i.e., credible non-zero) effect. Similar results for other species are presented in Appendix S4.

Name	Mean	HDI low	HDI high
(Intercept)	0.73	0.29	1.17
Range*	0.51	0.08	0.95
Kenya*	3.46	1.59	5.36
South Africa*	2.35	0.94	3.73
Cameroon*	2.05	0.78	3.36
Zimbabwe	0.66	−0.01	1.34
Zambia	0.62	−0.08	1.33
Uganda	0.36	−0.25	0.98
Botswana	0.35	−0.50	1.21
Tanzania	0.28	−1.09	2.12
Nigeria	−0.29	−0.67	0.10
Sudan	−0.3	−0.67	0.10
Burkina Faso	−0.31	−0.68	0.08
Benin	−0.31	−0.68	0.07
Senegal	−0.33	−0.69	0.04
Mozambique †	−0.52	−0.96	−0.08
Ethiopia †	−0.63	−0.95	−0.31
Namibia †	−0.68	−1.02	−0.35
Niger †	−0.91	−1.21	−0.63
Chad †	−0.91	−1.21	−0.62
Malawi †	−0.92	−1.22	−0.63
Angola †	−0.92	−1.23	−0.63
DRC †	−0.92	−1.23	−0.64
South Sudan †	−0.93	−1.24	−0.64
CAR †	−0.99	−1.57	−0.49

Note:

HDI, Highest Density Interval; Range, Geographical range of species, based on IUCN Red List range maps (IUCN, 2020).

^*value suggests significant positive effect;

^†value suggests significant negative effect.