| microwells |
“0D” structures
(no compartments) |
no size limit; monodispersity
low |
low |
low; no special equipment
required |
low; manual
one-step process
(pipetting) |
no |
| layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly |
“0D” structures
of core–shell topology (1 cellular compartment) |
monodispersity and size
depending on the process of core generation |
mode rate |
low to high depending on
the process of core generation |
moderate; involves a number
of manual washing steps (same as the number of shells) |
no |
| superhydrophobic surfaces |
“0D” structures
of core–shell topology (2 cellular
compartments) |
>1000
μm (limited
by the pipetted volume); monodispersity high |
low |
low; no special equipment
required |
low; manual
one-step or
multistep process (when combined with LbL) |
no |
| micropatterning based methods |
“0D” or “2D”
structures of Janus topology (2 cellular compartments) |
>50 μm; monodispersity
high |
mode rate |
moderate; requires microfabrication |
moderate. automation limited;
requires calibration/optimization of the setup |
no |
| electrospray/electrospinning |
complex “0D”
and “1D” structures of core–shell or Janus topologies (multiple cellular compartments) |
200–500 μm; monodispersity high |
high |
moderate; requires specialized
equipment |
high; automated
process;
requires calibration/optimization of the setup |
no |
| 3D printing of adhesive
droplets |
complex
“2D”
and “3D” structures of Janus topologies (multiple cellular
compartments) |
>1000
μm; monodispersity
moderate |
moderate
to high |
high; requires
specialized
equipment and microfabrication |
high; automated process;
requires calibration/optimization of the setup |
yes/no |
| microfluidics/microfluidic
spinning. |
Complex
“0D”,
“1D”, “1.5D”, “2D”, and
“3D” structures of core shell and Janus topologies (multiple
cellular compartments) |
100–500 μm; monodispersity
high |
high to very
high |
high; requires
specialized
equipment and microfabrication |
high; automated process;
requires calibration/optimization of the setup |
yes/no |
