Table 3.

Nanomaterial-based electrochemical biosensors for AST classified according to the nanomaterial used and their function, the electrochemical technique used, bacteria detected, antibiotic tested and their concentration, and the time required for performing the analysis

Nanomaterial	Nanomaterial function	Electrochemical technique	Bacteria	Antibiotics	Concentrations tested	Detection time	Ref
ʟ-CeONP/ITO	Working electrode	CV	Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli	Ciprofloxacin, cefixime, and amoxycillin	2 μg/μL	15 min	[84]
MWCNTs and AuNPs	Enhance the sensitivity of SPCEs	DPV	Salmonella gallinarum	Ofloxacin and penicillin	0.0625–256 μg/mL	4 h	[85]
Silicon nano transistors	Sensor design	SiNWFETs	E. coli, S. saprophyticus, and S. aureus	Ampicillin, cefotaxime, and ciprofloxacin	100 mg/L, 20 mg/L, and 1–4 mg/L, respectively	30 min	[86]
CDs	Bacterial growth-monitoring sensor	CV	E. coli and ampicillin resistant E. coli	Ampicillin	100 μg/mL	20 min	[87]
AgNPs-invertase complexes	Inhibition of enzymatic activity	PGM	E. coli	Colistin, spectinomycin, streptomycin, and tetracycline	0–65 μg/mL	4 h	[88]
Nanochannels	Sensing platforms	DPV	S. aureus	RIP, YSPWTNF-NH2	50 μg/mL	24 h	[89]

Nanomaterials: AgNPs-invertase complexes, silver nanoparticles-invertase complexes; CDs, carbon nanodots; ʟ-CeONP/ITO, ʟ-lysine-functionalized cerium oxide nanoparticle coated indium tin oxide; MWNCTs and AuNPs, multiwalled carbon nanotubes and gold nanoparticles; RIP, RNAIII-inhibiting peptide. Electrochemical methods: CV, cyclic voltammetry; DPV, differential pulse voltammetry; EIS, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy; LSV, linear sweep voltammetry; SWV, square wave voltammetry