Table 4.

Literature review—direct costs

	n	Country	Method	Number of comorbidities	Population	Normal weight	Overweight	Obesity	% of healthcare costs
Arterburn et al. [12]	16,262	USA	Econometric approach	N/A	18+	$2424	$2664	$2984–4399${}^{\text{a}}$	N/A
Finkelstein et al. [22]	20,329	USA	Econometric approach	N/A	18–64 women	0 (base)	$495	$1071–1549${}^{\text{a}}$	N/A
					18–64 men		$169	$392–1591${}^{\text{a}}$
Cawley & Meyerhoefer [10]	23,689	USA	Econometric approach	NA	11–64	$1763		$4458	20.6%
Kleinman et al. [61]${}^{\text{b}}$	72,778	USA	Econometric approach	N/A	18+ women	$4 142	$4583	$6328	N/A
					18+ men	$2861	$3378	$4309
An [62]	125,955	USA	Econometric approach	N/A	18+ women	0 (base)	N/A	$1525	N/A
					18+ men			$1160
Borg et al. [16]	23,365	Sweden	Econometric approach	N/A	30–60 women	0 (base)	$101 million${}^{\text{c}}$		2.3%
			(total costs)		30–60 men		$169 million
Sander & Bergemann [63]	N/A	Germany	Top-down approach	4	25+	N/A	N/A	€2 billion	N/A
Konnopka et al. [11]	N/A	Germany	Top-down approach	16 (W), 17 (M)	18+	N/A	€4 854 million		2.1%
Lehnert et al. [24]	N/A	Germany	Top-down approach	16 (W), 17 (M)	18+	N/A	€8 647 million		3.27%
Schmid et al. [60]	N/A	Switzerland	Top-down approach	18	15+	N/A	CHF 1 077–1 615 million		2.3–3.5%
Kang et al. [25]${}^{\text{d}}$	1.9 mil	Korea	Top-down approach	7	20+	N/A	$270.5 million	$810.5 million	3.7%
Dee et al. [23]	N/A	Northern Ireland	Top-down approach	16	N/A	N/A	€127 million		2.8%
	N/A	Republic of Ireland					€437 million		2.7%
Krueger et al. [17]	N/A	Canada	Top-down aproach	16	12+ women	N/A	$4.3 billion	$7.6 billion	6.7%
				13	12+ men		$4.8 billion	$6.6 billion
Hodycová [19]	N/A	Czech Republic	Top-down approach	7${}^{\text{e}}$	18+	N/A	N/A	9.5 billion CZK${}^{\text{f}}$	5.2%
Tuzarová [18]	N/A	Czech Republic	Top-down approach	18 (W), 16 (M)	18+	N/A	N/A	7.6 billion CZK	3.45%
Effertz et al. [9]	146,000	Germany	Bottom-up approach	NA	15+	N/A	N/A	€29.39 billion	7.9%${}^{\text{g}}$

${}^{\text{a}}$Range for obesity class I–III. ${}^{\text{b}}$Normal weight is classified as BMI < 27, overweight: 27 $\le$ BMI < 30, obesity: BMI $\ge$ 30. ${}^{\text{c}}$Values are converted from SEK by a rate US$1 = SEK8. ${}^{\text{d}}$In Korea, classification of obesity according to BMI is different than in Europe (Overweight: 23–24.9 kg/m${}^2$; Obesity I: 25–29.9 kg/m²; Obesity II: $\ge$ 30 kg/m${}^2$) . ${}^{\text{e}}$Cardiovascular diseases are taken as one comorbidity. ${}^{\text{f}}$6.7 billion healthcare utilization, 2.6 billion pharmacotherapy. ${}^{\text{g}}$Percentage of healthcare costs stated in [2]