Fig. 3. Summer precipitation change simulations using the Weather Research and Forecasting model with Chemistry (WRF-Chem).

a Averaged summer precipitation change due to South Asian black carbon for the period 2007–2016; this is then broken down into two components in b convective precipitation and c large-scale precipitation. Precipitation change estimates were derived based upon WRF-Chem simulations, where precipitation output from the control simulations (initialized with South Asian black carbon) was compared with that from the sensitivity simulation (devoid of South Asian black carbon). South Asia is delineated by the solid red polygon and the Tibetan plateau is outlined by red dashed lines depicting its northern and southern regions, as noted in Fig. 1.