Table 1.

Role of different NPs against COVID-19

NPs	Description	Ref.
Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs)	High nucleic acid (siRNA or mRNA) encapsulation rate and enhanced transfection effectiveness resulted in viral load suppression in the lungs The ionizable lipids are close-charged at physiological pH, making them an excellent vehicle for nucleic acid treatments Protecting mRNAs from ribonucleases and delivering their intact form to the target site Lower cytotoxicity and immunogenicity Compared to bilayer liposomes, LNPs exhibit increased cargo stability and cellular penetration Easy manufacturing technique, small size, and serum stability	[26] [27, 28] [29] [30–32] [29] [27, 28]
Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)	Used for sterilizing and employed in PPE Fast detection of particular COVID-19 viral antigens Common antigen carriers are utilized in immunization and vaccination, increasing vaccination effectiveness by stimulating antigen-presenting cells and maintaining controlled antigen release	[33–36]
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)	Silver is effective against all infections, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Developing extremely sensitive biosensors based on AgNPs Direct virucidal activity by adhering to the virus particles and blocking their connection to host cells AgNPs attach to the viral genome, resulting in viral replication suppression and the release of progeny virions Producing free radicals and ROS, causing apoptosis and therefore preventing viral infection Triggering an immune response and avoiding COVID-19 inflammation and fibrosis by decreasing the amounts of cytokines and cytokine-mediated inflammation Inhibiting cytokine storm, inflammatory signaling, pulmonary insufficiency reduction, and regulation of the EMT signaling cascade Therapeutic serum and procedures based on NagC to prevent viral and bacterial respiratory infections from spreading Preventing secondary microbial infections after COVID-19 infection	[37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [38] [43] [38]
Polymeric nanoparticles (PNs)	Increasing oral delivery of drugs with improved stability within the digestive tract, shielding encapsulated substances, modulating chemical properties, drug release, and antigen carriers The most frequently utilized NPs for encapsulating chloroquine	[44–46]
magnetic nanoparticles	Rapid detection of virus Practical, automated, and high-throughput alternatives to centrifugation	[47–50]
Zinc nanoparticles	Inhibiting viral reproduction, reducing inflammation, and improving the immune system in specific sites	[51]
Dendrimer nanoparticles (DNs)	Dendrimers have been developed for transdermal, oral, ocular, and pulmonary drug delivery. Limited clinical applications because of its toxicity Low polydispersity and biocompatibility	[16, 52]