Fig. 4.

Nanotopographies affect osteoclast differentiation. A RAW 264.7 cells cultured on HA substrates with different surface nanoscales under RANKL stimulation at day 4. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [158]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry. B The linear correlation between the surface porosity of β-TCP substrate and the active rabbit-derived osteoclasts (OCs) per total OC number. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [159]. Copyright 2013, Wiley. C Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) staining and quantification of total protein amount and TRAP activity after a 5-day culture of C57BL/6 mice bone marrow derived macrophages on Ti substrates with different nanotubes. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [163]. D F-action (green) of RAW264.7 cultured on Ti substrates with different nanotubes at day 4. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [15]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier. E Frames from a time-lapse movie of the sealing zones of OCs on rough and smooth calcite substrates viewed at 0, 3 and 300 min. In the color pictures of temporal ratio color, new pixels are red, pixels that disappeared are blue, and unchanged pixels are yellow. Scale bars: 10 μm. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [164]. Copyright 2010, the Company of Biologists