TABLE 1.

Outlines of the effect of EVs in dental and maxillofacial tissue repair and regeneration approaches.

Target tissue	EV source	Cargo	Mechanism	Result	Ref.
Pulp	SCAPs		enhance DSPP expression	promoted dentine-pulp complex regeneration	Zhuang et al. (2020)
	DPSCs		trigger the P38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway	triggered regeneration of dental pulp-like tissue	Huang et al. (2016)
	DPSCs		promote the expression levels of MMP-9, VEGF-A, and KDR	induce blood vessel regeneration	Xian et al. (2018)
Dentin matrix	DPSCs		stimulate the migration of endogenous DPSCs and guide their differentiation toward secretory odontoblasts	induce tertiary dentin bridge formation	Swanson et al. (2020)
	LPS-pretreated DPSCs		facilitate SCs migration and odontogenic differentiation		Li et al. (2021)
	DPSCs		promote the odontogenic differentiation of DPSCs and improve hydroxyapatite nucleation	improve the formation and mineralization of dentin matrix	Chen et al. (2021)
Cementum	M0/M1/M2 macrophages		mediated by secreted substances from macrophages and was conducted through the culture fluid to the cementoblasts.	M1-polarized macrophages attenuated cementoblast mineralization, while M2-polarized macrophages enhanced cementoblast mineralization	Zhao et al. (2022)
Alveolar bone	BMMSCs		activate the OPG-RANKL-RANK signaling pathway	inhibit periodontitis and alveolar bone absorption	Liu et al. (2021)
	DPSCs	miR-1246	facilitate macrophages to convert from a pro-inflammatory phenotype to an anti-inflammatory phenotype	promote alveolar bone reconstruction and periodontal epithelial healing	Shen et al. (2020)
	LPS-preconditioned DFSCs		inhibit ROS/JNK signaling pathway under inflammatory conditions and promote macrophages to polarize toward the M2 phenotype via ROS/ERK signaling	enhance the therapeutic efficacy for periodontitis	Huang et al. (2022)
Periodontal ligament	ADSCs		enhance the proliferation of primitive periodontal fibroblast and osteoid tissues	enhance the outcome of the nonsurgical periodontal treatment	Mohammed et al. (2018)
	MSCs		through adenosine receptor activation of AKT and ERK signaling pathways	promote periodontal regeneration with enhanced bone growth and increased functional PDL length	Chew et al. (2019)
Temporomandibular joint cartilage	SHEDs	miR-100	inhibit the expression of proinflammatory factors and matrix metalloproteinases	reduce inflammation in the temporomandibular joint and prevent further cartilage damage	Luo et al. (2019)
	hUCM-MSCs		upregulate expression of growth factors, extracellular matrix markers, and anti-inflammatory cytokines, and reduce expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines	has potential for cartilage protection and cartilage regeneration	Kim et al. (2019)
	human embryonic MSCs			display complete restoration of cartilage and subchondral bone	Zhang et al. (2016)
	human embryonic MSCs	CD73	activate AKT and ERK phosphorylation and display a regenerative immune phenotype	mediate the repair of osteochondral defects	Zhang et al. (2018)
Maxillofacial soft tissue	adipose tissue		promote proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis of ECs and induce adipogenesis of ADSCs	induce adipose tissue regeneration	Dai et al. (2017)
	adipose tissue	miR-450a-5p	inhibit the expression of WISP2 and promote the differentiation of adipose cells	trigger fat-generating signals in adipose stem cells	Zhang et al. (2017)
	human endometrial MSCs		increase the expression of angiogenic markers and promote the proliferation and migration of HUVECs	induce angiogenic activity in endothelial cells	Ha et al. (2020)
Peripheral nerve	DPSCs		promote neurite outgrowth of DRG neurons and increase the viability and myelin-related protein expression of Schwann cells	contribute to the neurophysiological and neuropathological recovery	Omi et al. (2017)
	DPSCs		upregulate neuron-related markers and the gene expression of TRPV1 and promote the survival and regeneration of isolated primary TGNCs	repair damaged trigeminal nerves	Sultan et al. (2020)
	GMSCs		activate c-JUN-governed repair phenotype of SCs	promote peripheral nerve regeneration	Mao et al. (2019)
	Schwann cells	miR-23b-3p	downregulate the expression of Nrp1	promote the repair and regeneration of damaged peripheral nerves	Xia et al. (2020)
Tongue	GMSCs		increase the expression of CK14 and CK8, enhance the regeneration of epithelial progenitor cells	facilitate taste bud and lingual papilla restoration	Zhang et al. (2019)