Table 1.

Animal models for Alzheimer's disease.

S.No	Model	Species, age, gender	Biomarkers	Dosage regimens	References
1.	Streptozotocin induced AD.	•Male, Wistar albino rats aged 3-4months •Male/female Sprague-Dawley rats aged 2-5months •Male/female Cynomolgus monkey aged 5-8 years	Amyloid plaques, tauopathy, gliosis, atrophy of parenchyma, Neurochemical alterations, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation	3mg/kg (i.c.v) at 48hr intervals in two divided doses for rodents 2mg/kg (i.c.v) divided into four dosages for monkeys	[6], [7], [8], [9]
2.	Aβ-induced AD	•Male Fisher rats aged 18-20 weeks. •Male, Long-Evans hooded aged rats 2-3months. •Male/female, aged Rhesus monkeys aged 25-28 years, •Male/female aged Marmoset monkeys 8-10years. •Male/female aged vervet monkeys aged 19-23 years.	Amyloid plaques, Tau phosphorylation, cholinergic deficits, neuroinflammation, glutaminergic alterations	Acute/cont infusion of Aβ into 3rd ventricle (5µg/1µl) Continuous infusion (10/20 µg/3days) into right ventricle	[10], [11], [12], [13], [14]
3.	Scopolamine- induced- AD	•Male albino rats aged 4-months. •Male/ female Swiss albino mice aged 10-12 weeks	Tau pathology, Cholinergic impairment, monoamine alterations, neuroinflammation	1, 3mg/kg (i.p.) 0.3-0.5mg/kg (i.p.) 72µg/0.5µl (i.c.v)	[16], [17], [18]
4.	AF64A induced memory deficits	•Male Wistar-Imamichi rats, aged 7-8weeks. •Sprague-Dawley rats aged 5 weeks, male	Cholinergic deficits, astrogliosis	2nmol/2µl intra cerebrally 8nmol bilaterally into striatum 6nmol/6µl i.c.v	[19,20]
5.	Alcohol- induced memory deficits	•Male, Wistar rats aged 2-3 months •Male Sprague-Dawley rats aged 2 months	Deficits in spatial memory, oxidative stress Neuroinflammation, neuronal loss.	(20% w/v, 4 g/kg, p.o. for 28 days)	[21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26]
6.	Cholesterol and copper sulfate model	•Male New Zealand white rabbits aged 3-4months.	Amyloid-plaques, oxidative stress, gliosis, apoptosis.	2% cholestrol+0.12ppm of copper ions	[27], [28]
7.	Colchicine model of AD.	•Albino rats aged 6-8weeks, male	Amyloid plaques, neuroinflammation, cognitive deficits, NMDA activation, neurodegeneration.	(7.5 µg/10 µl,icv)	[29], [30], [31]
8.	Immunotoxin 192IgG-saporin model	•Male Sprague-Dawley rats aged 2-months •Male Wistar rats aged 8-12 weeks	Cholinergic deficits, cognitive deficits, synaptic changes, glial changes.	192IgG-saporin 4 µg/0.3 µl, i.c.v., 375ng/0.3 µl i.c.v.,	[32], [33], [34]
9.	Lysophosphatidic acid induced AD	•Mouse neuroblastoma N2a cell line	Amyloid production, upregulates BACE1 expression, cognitive changes, oxidative stress.	25µM	[35,36]
10.	Metal (aluminium) model	•Male Wistar rats aged 6-12 months. •Male Sprague-Dawley rats aged 6-16weeks.	Amyloid plaques, Tangles, neurotransmitter alterations, cognitive deficits, oxidative stress, gliosis, neuroinflammation.	Al (5mg/kg, 10mg/kg, i.p, 60days) Al (4.2mg/kg, i.p, 28 days) Al (100mg/kg, oral)	[37], [38], [39], [40], [41], [42]
11.	Methionine	•Male Wistar albino rats aged 3 months	Cholinergic deficits, endothelial dysfunction, neuroinflammation, gliosis, cognitive deficits, oxidative stress	1.7g/kg per day p.o for 32 days 1.7 g/kg per day p.o. for 8 weeks	[43,44]
12.	Okadaic (OKA) acid	•Male/female Sprague-Dawley rats aged 2-3months	Tau phosphorylation, Amyloid β plaques, oxidative stress, cognitive deficits.	Okadaic acid (70 ng/day icv, for 14 days)	[45,46]
13.	(Excito)toxin	•Male Sprague-Dawley rats aged 2-3 months	Oxidative stress, apoptosis, cognitive deficits, excitotoxicity,	Ibotenic acid (10 µg/5 µl; icv.,)	[47,48]
14.	Clonidine-induced memory deficits	•Male Wistar rats aged 2-3 months	Cognitive deficits	0.1mg/kg, i.p	[49], [50], [51]
15.	Clozapine-induced memory deficits	•Female Sprague-Dawley rats aged 2-3 months	Cognitive deficits	1.25mg/kg, s.c; 2.5mg/kg s.c.,	[55,56]
16.	Lignocaine-induced memory deficits	•Male Wistar rats aged 3months.	Cognitive deficits	2% lidocaine in 1µl, i.c.v	[52], [53], [54]
17.	Cycloheximide-induced memory deficits	•Male naïve Sprague-Dawley rats	Cholinergic deficits, cognitive disturbances, neurotransmitter alterations	1mg/kg; 150mg/kg; s.c.,	[57,58]
18.	Phenytoin induced memory deficits	•Male Wistar rats aged 2-3months	Oxidative stress, cognitive deficits	75mg/kg, i.p.,	[59], [60], [61]
19.	D-Galactose induced cognitive impairment	•Male C57L/B6 mice aged 6-8weeks •Male Swiss albino mice aged 9 weeks	Amyloid-β, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, cognitive deficits.	d-gal (150 mg/kg) for 6 weeks.	[62], [63], [64], [65], [66], [67], [68]
20	Dizocilpine (MK-801) AD	•Male Wistar rats aged 8-10 weeks •Male C57L/B6 mice aged 7-9 weeks	Cognitive deficits, motor disturbances	0.15mg/kg,i.p.,	[69,70]
21.	Diazepam	•Male Swiss albino mice -young (3-4 months) and aged (12-15 months)	Cognitive deficits	1mg/kg., i.p	[15,75]