Table 2.
Comparative study of long-term interventions of motor skills on the cognition of children and adolescents.
| Included articles study design | Patients (N/Age) | Interventions and controls | Outcome | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcome measures | Results | |||
| Kong (2012) | E1 = 30/grade 1 and 5 | 16 weeks (3x/week) moderate intensity (65–75% HRmax) table tennis, 40 min/time (E1) vs. fitness boxing (E2) vs. rope skipping (E3) vs. self-study or book reading (C) | ①Digit cancellation test (E1 = E2>E3 = C) | +0& |
| non-RCCT | E2 = 30/grade 1 and 5 | |||
| E3 = 30/grade 1 and 5 | ||||
| C = 30/grade 1 and 5 | ||||
| Wu et al. (2007) | E1 = 30/grade 5 | 12 weeks (3x/week) low intensity (105–130 beats/min) football, 35 min/time (E1) vs. moderate intensity (130–150 beats/min) football (E2) vs. low intensity table tennis (E3) vs. moderate intensity table tennis (E4) vs. self-study or reading books (C) | ①Attention test | |
| non-RCCT | E2 = 29/grade 5 | Attention stability (T2<T4) | +& | |
| E3 = 28/grade 5 | Attention span (T2<T4) | +& | ||
| E4 = 27/grade 5 | Attention shift (T1>T3; T2<T4) | +& | ||
| C = 29/grade 5 | Attention duration (T2>T4) | +& | ||
| Attention concentrativeness (T2<T4) | +& | |||
| Telles et al. (2013) | E1 = 49/10.4 ± 1.2y | 12 weeks (5x/week) yoga, 45 min/time (E1) vs. physical exercise such as jogging, sprint running, relay races (E2) vs. pre-test | ②Stroop (E1<E2) | +& |
| RCT | E2 = 49/10.5 ± 1.3y | |||
| Schmidt et al. (2015) | E1 = 69/11.3 ± 0.6y | 6 weeks (2x/week) high intensity soft hockey and basketball games, 45 min/time (E1) vs. 200 m round trip run (E2) vs. traditional PE course (C) | ②Flanker (E1>E2 = C) | +0& |
| RCT | E2 = 57/11.3 ± 0.6y | ③2-back (E1>E2 = C) | +0& | |
| C = 55/11.4 ± 0.6y | ④More-odd shifting (E1>E2 = C) | +0& | ||
| Koutsandreou et al. (2016) | E1 = 27/9.3 ± 0.6y | 10 weeks (3x/week) moderate intensity (60–70% HRmax) aerobic exercise, 45 min/time (E1) vs. moderate intensity (55–65% HRmax) skill practice focused on improving coordination (S) (E2) vs.do their homework (C) | ⑥Letter Digit Span (E2>E1) | +& |
| RCT | E2 = 23/9.4 ± 0.7y | |||
| C = 21/9.3 ± 0.6y | ||||
| Tse et al. (2021) | ASD | 2 weeks (5x/week) low intensity (RPE = 3–5) learning to cycle in a natural environment, 60 min/time (E1) vs. ride a stationary bike (E2) vs. daily activity (C) | ②GO/NO GO (E1>E2 = C) | +0& |
| RCT | E1 = 22/10.2 ± 0.7y | ⑤Corsi blocks test (E1>E2 = C) | +0& | |
| E2 = 20/9.6 ± 1.6y | ⑥Forwards/Backwards Digit Span (E1 = E2 = C/E1 = C>E2) | -0& | ||
| C = 20/9.9 ± 1.3y | ⑦Tower of London (E1>E2 = C) | +0& | ||
| Pan et al. (2016) | 1 = LD; 2 = Normal | 10 weeks (3x/week) moderate intensity (60–69% HRmax) basketball intervention, 30 min/time (E) vs. traditional PE course (C) | ②Flanker (E1>E2) | +& |
| RCT | E1 = 23/12.0 ± 0.6y | ③1-back (E1>E2) | +& | |
| E2 = 25/12.0 ± 0.6y | ④More-odd shifting (E1>E2) | +& | ||
| C1 = 22/12.0 ± 0.6y | ||||
| C2 = 23/12.0 ± 0.6y | ||||
| Yin et al. (2017) | 1 = LD, 2 = Normal | 16 weeks (3x/week) moderate intensity (60–69% HRmax) basketball intervention, 30 min/time (E) vs. blank control (C) | ②Flanker (E1>E2) | +& |
| RCT | E1 = 26/grade 4 | ③1-back (E1 = E2) | +& | |
| E2 = 26/grade 4 | ④More-odd shifting (E1>E2) | +& | ||
| C1 = 23/grade 4 | ||||
| C2 = 21/grade 4 | ||||
| Song et al. (2020) | 1 = ADHD, 2 = Normal | 10 weeks moderate intensity (60–69% HRmax) orienteering, 25-35 min/time (E) vs. traditional PE course (C) | ②Flanker (E1>E2) | +& |
| RCT | E1 = 22/NC | ③1-back (E1>E2) | +& | |
| E2 = 20/NC | ④More-odd shifting (E1>E2) | +& | ||
| C1 = 22/NC | ||||
| C2 = 20/NC | ||||
RCT, randomized controlled trial; non-RCCT, non-randomized concurrent control trial; NC, not clear; E, experimental group; C, control group; y, year; HRmax, maximum heart rate; RPE, rating of perceived exertion; ①, attention; ②, inhibitory control; ③, working memory shifting; ④, cognitive flexibility; ⑤, visual spatial working memory; ⑥, verbal working memory; ⑦, planning and problem solving; +, beneficial to experimental group; −, beneficial to control group; 0, no significant difference between the experimental and control groups; &, comparison of intervention results between experimental groups; ADHD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; ASD, autism spectrum disorder; LD, learning difficulties.