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. 2022 Jun 3;2:47. doi: 10.1038/s43705-022-00130-7

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — a The speargrass S. ciliata growing in the gravel plain as shown by the new green leaves developing from the basal portion of the plant (bar, 2 cm). b Close-up photograph of the S. ciliata rhizosheath–root system extracted from the soil (bar, 1 cm). The rhizosheath (RS) is composed of sand grains physically attached to the root, along with trapped stones and sand grains. c Stereomicroscope image of the rhizosheath–root system structure shows the external RS layer of the matrix with long root hairs developing from the epidermis (internal layer of RS; i.e., outermost cells of the root) that entrap sand grains and stones, as well as the central root tissue of vascular plants (bar, 1 mm). d Magnification of a stone detached from the RS; biological mineral weathering is indicated by black arrows (bar, 1 mm). e Relative humidity (%) and f temperature (°C) measured (n = 10; ±standard deviation) in NV soils (surface and in-depth) and soils under S. ciliata plants (surface and in-depth RH); S, surface, and D, in-depth. Values from air are also reported. Results of the ANOVA main test are indicated, along with lowercase letters referring to results of the post-hoc multiple comparison Tukey’s tests. g Non-parametric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) ordination plot showing the relative distribution of humidity and temperature measured; the relative humidity trend is plotted onto the ordination space. The result of the PERMANOVA main test is reported.