Table 1.

Components of non-antimicrobial agents that induce cross-antimicrobial resistance among pathogenic bacteria.

Non-antimicrobial agents	Antimicrobial resistance	Pathogen	Mechanism	Reference
As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb	Aminoglycoside, Amphenicol, Cephalosporin, Penicillin, Quinolone, Tetracycline, Sulphamethoxazole-trimethoprim	E. coli, P. aeruginosa	Outer membrane proteins	Choudhury and Kumar, 1996
Co	Tetracycline	Bacillus subtilis	Efflux pumps	Cheng et al., 1996
Ag	Cephalosporins	E. coli	Outer membrane proteins, efflux pumps	Li et al., 1997
Cd, Zn	β-lactams, Erythromycin, Kanamycin, Novobiocin, Ofloxacin	Burkholderia cepacia	DsbA–DsbB multidrug efflux system	Hayashi et al., 2000
Cd, Co, Zn	Clindamycin, Erythromycin, Josamycin	L. monocytogenes	Multidrug efflux system	Mata et al., 2000
V	β-lactams, Chloramphenicol, Fluoroquinolones, Tetracyclines, Ticarcillin, Clavulanic acid	P. aeruginosa	MexGHI–OpmD efflux pump, RND efflux pumps	Aendekerk et al., 2002
BKC	Amikacin, Tobramycin	P. aeruginosa	Efflux pumps	Joynson et al., 2002
As, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni	β-lactams, Novobiocin	S. Typhimurium	Multidrug efflux system	Nishino et al., 2007
BKC	Ciprofloxacin, Gentamicin	L. monocytogenes	Efflux pumps	Rakic-Martinez et al., 2011
Cu	Erythromycin, Tetracycline, Vancomycin	Enterococcus spp.	Multidrug efflux system	Hasman and Aarestrup, 2002; Agga et al., 2014
TCS	Enrofloxacin, Sulphamethoxazole-trimethoprim	S. Typhimurium	Efflux pumps	Gantzhorn et al., 2015
Ag, Cu	Aminoglycosides, Macrolides, Tetracyclines, Trimethoprim	S. Typhimurium	Efflux pumps	Mourão et al., 2015
As, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni	Chloramphenicol, Cefotaxime Penicillin, Tetracyclines,	S. Typhimurium, P. aeruginosa	Multidrug efflux system	Teixeira et al., 2016
Cd	Ampicillin, Chloramphenicol, Ceftizoxime, Ciprofloxacin	S. Typhi	Multidrug efflux system	Kaur et al., 2021

Ag, silver; As, arsenic; BKC, benzalkonium chloride; Cd, cadmium; Co, cobalt; Cr, chromium; Cu, copper; Hg, Mercury; Ni, nickel; Pb, lead; TCS, Triclosan; V, vanadium; Zn, Zinc.