Table 2.
Associations between text message sentiment and symptoms the following week
| Sentiment category | Outcome | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PHQ‐8 | GAD‐7 | SPIN | ||||
| Baseline model β (SE) | Controlling for GAD‐7, SPIN β (SE) | Baseline model β (SE) | Controlling for PHQ‐8, SPIN β (SE) | Baseline model β (SE) | Controlling for PHQ‐8, GAD‐7 β (SE) | |
| LIWC 2015 (Pennebaker et al., 2015) | ||||||
| Function words | .11 (0.05) | .05 (0.03) | .10 (0.05) | .01 (0.03) | .11 (0.05) | .08 (0.05) |
| Pronouns | .14 * (0.05) | .05 (0.03) | .15 * (0.05) | .03 (0.03) | .16 * (0.05) | .11 (0.04) |
| Personal pronouns | .13 * (0.05) | .04 (0.03) | .16 ** (0.05) | .05 (0.03) | .16 * (0.05) | .11 (0.04) |
| I (First person singular) | .13 * (0.05) | .06 (0.03) | .14 * (0.05) | .04 (0.03) | .10 (0.05) | .06 (0.05) |
| She/He (Third person singular) | .07 (0.05) | −.01 (0.03) | .13 * (0.05) | .05 (0.03) | .17 ** (0.05) | .14 * (0.04) |
| Articles | −.06 (0.05) | .01 (0.03) | −.13 * (0.05) | −.08 (0.03) | −.07 (0.05) | −.04 (0.04) |
| Negations | .17 ** (0.05) | .09 (0.03) | .14 * (0.05) | .01 (0.03) | 0.14 * (0.05) | 0.10 (0.04) |
| Common adverbs | .15 * (0.05) | .08 (0.04) | .12 (0.05) | .01 (0.03) | .11 (0.05) | .07 (0.05) |
| Common verbs | .10 (0.05) | .04 (0.03) | .10 (0.05) | .02 (0.03) | .11 (0.05) | .08 (0.04) |
| Quantifiers | .09 (0.05) | .07 (0.03) | .02 (0.05) | −.05 (0.03) | .07 (0.05) | .06 (0.04) |
| Affective processes | ||||||
| Negative emotion | .22 *** (0.05) | .08 (0.03) | .25 *** (0.04) | .07 (0.03) | .25 *** (0.04) | .19 ** (0.04) |
| Anxiety | .12 * (0.05) | .02 (0.03) | .17 ** (0.04) | .07 (0.03) | .13 * (0.05) | .10 (0.04) |
| Anger | .14 * (0.04) | .04 (0.03) | .18 *** (0.04) | .06 (0.03) | .19 *** (0.04) | .14 ** (0.04) |
| Sadness | .21 *** (0.05) | .11 * (0.03) | .17 ** (0.05) | .03 (0.03) | .14 * (0.05) | .09 (0.04) |
| Social processes | −.04 (0.05) | −.09 * (0.03) | .11 * (0.04) | .13 *** (0.03) | .01 (0.05) | −0.02 (0.04) |
| Family | .09 (0.05) | .03 (0.03) | .10 (0.05) | .03 (0.03) | .10 (0.05) | .08 (0.04) |
| Female references | .06 (0.05) | .01 (0.04) | .09 (0.05) | .01 (0.03) | .14 * (0.05) | .11 (0.05) |
| Male peferences | .07 (0.05) | .00 (0.03) | .13 * (0.04) | .06 (0.03) | .11 (0.04) | .09 (0.04) |
| Cognitive processes | .19 ** (0.05) | .10 * (0.04) | .15 * (0.05) | .01 (0.03) | .16 * (0.05) | .12 (0.05) |
| Discrepancy | .10 (0.05) | .04 (0.03) | .11 * (0.05) | .03 (0.03) | .11 (0.05) | .08 (0.04) |
| Tentativeness | .11 (0.05) | .07 (0.03) | .05 (0.05) | −.03 (0.03) | .11 (0.05) | .09 (0.04) |
| Differentiation | .18 ** (0.05) | .10 * (0.03) | .14 * (0.05) | .01 (0.03) | .14 * (0.05) | .10 (0.04) |
| Perceptual processes | ||||||
| Hear | .10 (0.05) | .04 (0.03) | .13 * (0.04) | .06 (0.03) | .05 (0.05) | .02 (0.04) |
| Biological processes | .11 * (0.04) | .04 (0.03) | .12 * (0.04) | .02 (0.03) | .14 * (0.04) | .11 (0.04) |
| Body | .12 * (0.05) | .05 (0.03) | .13 * (0.04) | .02 (0.03) | .12 * (0.04) | .09 (0.04) |
| Health | .11 (0.05) | .05 (0.03) | .11 * (0.05) | .03 (0.03) | .08 (0.05) | .05 (0.04) |
| Sexuality | .11 * (0.04) | .02 (0.03) | .15 ** (0.04) | .05 (0.03) | .16 ** (0.04) | .12 * (0.04) |
| Drives | −.06 (0.04) | −.10 * (0.03) | .09 (0.04) | .13 *** (0.03) | −.02 (0.04) | −.04 (0.04) |
| Risk | .12 * (0.04) | .05 (0.03) | .14 ** (0.04) | .06 (0.03) | .07 (0.04) | .03 (0.04) |
| Affiliation | −.06 (0.05) | −.09 * (0.03) | .08 (0.04) | .13 *** (0.03) | −.05 (0.04) | −.05 (0.04) |
| Time orientations | ||||||
| Past focus | .12 (0.05) | .08 (0.03) | .06 (0.05) | −.02 (0.03) | .06 (0.05) | .04 (0.04) |
| Present focus | .07 (0.05) | .01 (0.03) | .10 (0.05) | .04 (0.03) | .10 (0.05) | .08 (0.04) |
| Informal language | .09 (0.05) | .01 (0.03) | .13 * (0.05) | .06 (0.03) | .11 (0.05) | .08 (0.05) |
| Swear words | .12 * (0.04) | .04 (0.03) | .16 ** (0.04) | .05 (0.03) | .16 ** (0.04) | .12 * (0.04) |
| Netspeak | .16 * (0.05) | .05 (0.04) | .19 ** (0.05) | .08 (0.03) | .12 (0.05) | .07 (0.05) |
| Assent | −.10 (0.05) | −.05 (0.03) | −.09 (0.05) | −.03 (0.03) | −.03 (0.05) | .00 (0.04) |
| Fillers | .14 * (0.04) | .09 * (0.03) | .10 (0.04) | .01 (0.03) | .08 (0.04) | .05 (0.04) |
| NRC Emotion Lexicon (Schwartz et al., 2014) | ||||||
| Sentiment | −.22 *** (0.05) | −.11 * (0.03) | −.21 *** (0.05) | −.05 (0.03) | −.17 ** (0.05) | −.11 (0.04) |
| Negative sentiment | −.20 ** (0.05) | −.09 (0.03) | −.21 *** (0.05) | −.05 (0.03) | −.20 ** (0.05) | −.13 * (0.04) |
| Anger | .15 * (0.05) | .05 (0.03) | .18 ** (0.04) | .06 (0.03) | .18 ** (0.05) | .13 * (0.04) |
| Disgust | .11 (0.05) | .04 (0.03) | .12 * (0.04) | .02 (0.03) | .15 ** (0.04) | .11 (0.04) |
| Fear | −.14 * (0.05) | −.08 (0.03) | −.12 * (0.05) | −.02 (0.03) | −.08 (0.05) | −.05 (0.04) |
| Sadness | .08 (0.05) | .00 (0.03) | .14 * (0.05) | .07 (0.03) | .10 (0.05) | .07 (0.04) |
| Positive sentiment | −.15 * (0.05) | −.09 (0.03) | −.14 * (0.05) | −.03 (0.03) | −.08 (0.05) | −.04 (0.04) |
| Anticipation | −.10 (0.04) | −.10 * (0.03) | .03 (0.04) | .12 *** (0.03) | −.11 (0.04) | −.10 (0.04) |
| Trust | −.05 (0.04) | −.09 * (0.03) | .09 (0.04) | .13 *** (0.03) | −.04 (0.04) | −.05 (0.04) |
| Depression and Stress Lexica (Guntuku et al., 2017) | ||||||
| Depression | .19 ** (0.05) | .07 (0.03) | .25 *** (0.05) | .12 ** (0.03) | .13 * (0.05) | .07 (0.05) |
| Stress | .15 * (0.05) | .07 (0.03) | .15 * (0.05) | .03 (0.03) | .13 * (0.05) | .08 (0.04) |
All p‐values are Benjamini–Hochberg corrected. For each outcome (PHQ‐8, GAD‐7, or SPIN) “Baseline Model” reflects the association between a given sentiment category and the outcome of interest the following week, controlling for age and gender, from multilevel regression models including the random effect of person. The column “Controlling for…” reflects the association between a given sentiment category and the outcome of interest the following week, controlling for age, gender, and the other two symptom scales, from multilevel regression models including the random effect of person. Note that LIWC separates the categories “I” and “We,” so these pronouns were extracted separately; the LIWC “I” category also includes “me” and “my,” as well as other variations on these pronouns (e.g., “I've” and “myself”).
Abbreviations: GAD‐7, Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7‐item scale; LIWC, Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count; PHQ‐8, Patient Health Questionnaire‐8; SPIN, Social Phobia Inventory.
*
p < .05
**
p < .01
***
p < .001.