Table 2.
Results and calculated effect sizes of the included quantitative studies in controlled or between-subject designs
| Author(s) | Intervention/control group (IG/CG) | Conducted questionnaire | T0 mean ± SD |
T1 mean ± SD |
p T0-T1 |
p T1 IG-CG |
d T0-T1 |
d IG-CG |
Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cheng et al. (2020) | IG: Senior Simulation Program | KAOP | IG: 120.3 ± 12.3 | IG: 124.8 ± 12.4 | < .001 | .374 | 0.36 | 0.07 | ↑ Increased attitudes toward older adults in IG and CG |
| Koken ASS | CG: 122.8 ± 11.6 | CG: 126.5 ± 10.0 | < .001 | ||||||
| CG: placebo clothing | WCOP | IG: 5.0 ± 1.3 | IG: 5.5 ± 1.1 | < .001 | ↑ Willingness to care for older adults in CG and IG | ||||
| CG: 5.4 ± 0.9 | CG: 5.6 ± 10.0 | < .001 | .397 | 0.42 | 0.27 | No sig. difference between groups | |||
| Filz (2010) | self-made ASSIG: “instant ageing program” | Attitudes score | IG: 40% | n/a | n/a | ↑ Higher attitudes score in IG vs. CG | |||
| CG: 29% | |||||||||
| CG: lecture | Evaluation sheets | IG: 85% | n/a | n/a | ↑ Higher empathy score in IG vs. CG | ||||
| Empathy score | CG: 57% | ||||||||
| Lee and Teh (2020) | IG: daily activities + workshop | JSE-HPS | IG: 111.5 ± 13.6 | 113.2 ± 14.5 | .86 | .81 | 0.12 | 0.04 | No sig. change in empathy, felt back to baseline 3 months later in both groups |
| Nagoya ASS | CG: 111.9 ± 11.3 | 113.1 ± 9.4 | 0.12 | ||||||
| CG: workshop | Self-rated knowledge | n/a | n/a | n/a | .79 | Self-rated knowledge and understanding on physical limitations post intervention similar between groups | |||
| Empathy | n/a | n/a | n/a | .70 | |||||
| Support | n/a | n/a | n/a | .34 | |||||
| Luchetti et al. (2017) | IG1: “Experiencing Aging” | - 0.36a | |||||||
| unkown ASS | UCLA-GA | IG1: 51.88 ± 4.67 | IG1: 50.51 ± 5.19 | .001 | IG1-CG .809 | - 0.28 | ↓ IG1 decreased attitudes | ||
| IG2: 51.01 ± 5.25 | IG2: 53.67 ± 4.16 | < .001 | IG2-CG < .001 | 0.56 | ↑ IG2 increased attitudes | ||||
| CG: 50.00 ± 5.68 | |||||||||
| IG2: “Myths about aging” | Palmore FAQ-1 | IG1: 11.61 ± 2.74 | IG1: 10.94 ± 2.28 | .033 | IG1-CG .104 | - 0.27 | ↓ IG1 decreased knowledge | ||
| no ASS | IG2: 11.13 ± 2.41 | IG2: 17.58 ± 1.96 | < .001 | IG2-CG < .001 | 2.94 | ↑ IG2 increased knowledge | |||
| CG: 10.22 ± 2.24 | |||||||||
| CG: no intervention | MSS attitudes | IG1: 15.53 ± 2.93 | IG1: 16.78 ± 2.83 | .007 | IG1-CG .734 | - 0.43 | ↓ IG1 decreased pos. attitudes | ||
| IG2: 16.17 ± 3.65 | IG2: 14.83 ± 3.46 | < .001 | IG2-CG .042 | - 0.38 | ↓ IG2 increased pos. attitudes | ||||
| CG: 16.29 ± 4.2 | |||||||||
| MSS empathy | IG: 5.33 ± 1.62 | IG1: 4.63 ± 1.31 | .001 | IG1-CG .124 | 0.48 | ↑ IG1 increased empathy | |||
| IG2: 5.44 ± 2.37 | IG2: 5.13 ± 2.10 | .070 | IG2-CG .824 | - 0.21 | IG2 no difference | ||||
| CG: 5.32 ± 2.09 | |||||||||
| Mandegari and Bamakan et al. (2021) | IG: lecture about age & ageing, ageing simulation | Palmore FAQ-1 | IG: 9.2 ± 2.6 | IG: 15.3 ± 3.5 | .001 | .001 | 1.98 | 1.87 |
↑ Increased knowledge in IG post sig. difference between IG-CG post |
| Unknown ASS | CG: 10.4 ± 2.9 | CG: 11.3 ± 2.6 | .30 | 0.33 | |||||
| KAOPS | IG: 114.69 ± 8.4 | IG: 157.31 ± 10.7 | < .05 | .001 | 4.43 | 4.15 |
↑ IG increased positive attitudes post ↓ CG decreased positive attitudes post |
||
| CG: lecture | CG: 113.34 ± 13.6 | CG: 108.5 ± 16.6 | < .05 | - 0.32 | |||||
| Positive | IG: 58.06 ± 6.3 | IG: 78.8 ± 6.9 | .001 | .001 | 3.14 | 0.53 |
↑ IG increased negative attitudes post ↓ CG decreased negative attitudes post |
||
| CG: 56.9 ± 10.9 | CG: 52.9 ± 8.4 | .10 | - 0.41 | ||||||
| Negative | IG: 56.6 ± 6.2 | IG: 78.5 ± 5.7 | .001 | .01 | 3.68 | -0.82 | |||
| CG: 56.3 ± 7.1 | CG: 52.6 ± 10.1 | .06 | - 0.42 | ||||||
| Mohamed et al. (2017) | IG: lectures about age & ageing, simulation game | KAOPS | 0.71b | ||||||
| Self-made ASS | Positive | IG: 53.7 ± 5.7 | IG: 57.8 ± 7.0 | .30 | .20 | 0.64 | 0.53 | No sig. difference between groups (post) | |
| CG: 54.7 ± 5.8 | CG: 55.7 ± 7.8 | .20 | 0.15 | ↑ Tendency to more positive attitudes in IG/CG post | |||||
| CG: lectures | Negative | IG: 49.8 ± 7.1 | IG: 43.9 ± 8.1 | < .001 | .014 | 0.78 | -0.82 | ↓ Decreased scores in negative attitudes in IG post | |
| CG: 48.2 ± 7.1 | CG: 48.2 ± 7.3 | 1.0 | 0.00 | ||||||
| Knowledge about normal ageing changes | IG: 13.3 ± .3.3 | IG: 21.0 ± 2.6 | < .001 | < .001 | 2.59 | 1.23 | Sig. difference between IG-CG | ||
| CG: 13.0 ± 3.6 | CG: 16.4 ± 3.5 | < .001 | 0.96 | ↑ Increased knowledge in IG | |||||
| Rueffert and Bullinger (2020) | IG: lectures about age & ageing, tasks of daily living | Self-developed: cognition | IG: 5.03 ± 0.73 | .004 | ↑Increased empathy and understanding subjects wearing the ASS had higher scores in | ||||
| MAX ASS | CG: 4.76 ± 0.85 | ||||||||
| CG: lectures about age & ageing, observed the IG | Empathy and understanding | IG: 5.32 ± 0.76 | .009 | ||||||
| CG: 5.12 ± 0.80 | |||||||||
| Motivation | IG: 4.87 ± 0.80 | .020 | |||||||
| CG: 4.65 ± 0.86 | |||||||||
| Yu et al. (2012) | IG: lectures about age & ageing, tasks of daily living | Nursing Assistants’ knowledge About Aging Scale | IG: 27.4 ± 5.5 | IG: 33.3 ± 5.8 | < .001 | 1.04 | 1.21 | ↑ Sig. increased knowledge for IG | |
| Self-made ASS | CG: 28.4 ± 4.8 | CG: 28.0 ± 4.1 | .61 | - 0.09 | |||||
| CG: lectures about age & ageing | NA Attitudes toward Older Adults | IG: 62.4 ± 6.1 | IG: 65.2 ± 6.8 | .001 | 0.43 | 0.46 | ↑ Sig. increased attitudes toward older adults in IG | ||
| CG: 65.3 ± 5.6 | CG: 65.4 ± 8.8 | .95 | - 0.01 | ||||||
| NA Motivation to Care | IG: 46.6 ± 4.5 | IG: 47.7 ± 4.2 | .06 | 0.25 | No sig. change in motivation to care in IG and CG | ||||
| CG: 48.3 ± 4.6 | CG: 47.1 ± 4.6 | .12 | - 0.26 |
n, numbers; s, seconds; cm, centimeters; °, degrees; ASS, Age Simulation Suit; CG, Control Group; IG, Intervention Group; ASD, Aging Semantic Differential; BES, Basic Empathy Scale; JFE-HPS, Jefferson Scale of Empathy-Health Professions Students; IMTEE, Integrated Model of Training Evaluation and Effectiveness; KAOPS, Kogan’s Attitudes Toward Older People Scale; MSS, Maxwell Sullivan Scale; Palmore FAQ-1, Palmore Facts About Aging Quiz; UCLA-GA, UCLA Geriatric Attitudes Test; WCOP, Willingness To Care For Older People Scale; calculated effect size Cohen’s d (Lenhard and Lenhard 2017) variant 1 effect size represents pre-to-post differences in the IG; positive/negative effects reporting increased/decreased attitudes/empathy; calculated effect size Cohen’s d (Morris 2008) variant 3 represents post differences between IG-CG
aMean effect size for the two attitude measures MSS and UCLA-GA
bMean effect size for positive and negative KAOPS scores