Table 1.

Changes in the intestinal flora of patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis

Methods	Increased	Decreased	Ref.
16S RNA gene sequencing: ileum, colon, and rectal samples	Actinobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Fusobacterium, Haemophilus, Roseburia	Bacteroides	[135]
qPCR: fecal samples	Enterobacteriaceae	Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus	[136]
16S RNA gene sequencing: fecal samples	Clostridium, Lactobacillus, Ruminococcus gnavus, Veillonella	Coprococcus, Faecalibacterium, Phascolarctobacterium, Ruminococcus	[137]
16S RNA gene sequencing: duodenal fluid, saliva, duodenal mucosa, and bile samples	Duodenal mucosa biopsy: Escherichia coli, Veillonella dispar; Bile fluid: Enterococcus, Neisseria, Proteobacteria, Staphylococcus, Veillonella dispar		[42]
Metagenomic shotgun sequencing	Clostridiales	Eubacterium, Ruminococcus obeum	[45]
16S RNA gene sequencing: fecal and saliva samples	Bacteroides fragilis, Blautia, Clostridium spp. Enterococcus, Enterobacteriaceae, Lactobacillus, Ruminococcus gnavus, Streptococcus salivarius Veillonella dispar	Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii	[43]
Sigmoid mucosal biopsies and 16S RNA gene sequencing	Haemophilus parainfluenzae, Pseudomonas, Streptococcus	Lachnospiraceae	[40]
16S RNA gene sequencing: fecal samples	Veillonella	Blautia, Faecalibacterium, Lachnoclostridium, Ruminococcus	[44]
16S RNA gene sequencing: fecal samples	Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Veillonella	Clostridium cluster IV, Coprococcus, Desulfovibrio, Faecalibacterium, Holdemanella	[38]
16S RNA gene sequencing: fecal samples	Veillonella	Coprococcus, Desulfovibrio, Phascolarctobacterium, Succinivibrio	[36]
16S RNA gene sequencing: fecal samples	Clostridium, Enterococcus, Haemophilus, Rothia, Streptococcus, Veillonella	Adlercreutzia equolifaciens, Coprococcus catus, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Prevotella copri, Ruminococcus gnavus	[47]
Colonic mucosal biopsies and 16S RNA gene sequencing	Escherichia, Lachnospiraceae, Megasphaera	Bacteroides, Prevotella, Roseburia	[37]
16S RNA gene sequencing: fecal samples	Veillonella		[39]
16S RNA gene sequencing: fecal samples	Enterococcus, Streptococcus, Veillonella		[7]
16S RNA gene sequencing: fecal samples	Bacteroidetes, Enterococcus, Fusobacterium, Lactobacillus, Morganella, Streptococcus, Veillonella	Anaerostipes	[35]
Colonic mucosal biopsies and 16S RNA gene sequencing: ileal samples	Barnesiellaceae, Blautia		[8]
Mucosal biopsy of the ileocecal region and 16S RNA gene sequencing	Clostridium clusters IVand XIVa, Akkermansia sp. (Verrucomicrobia), Uncultured Clostridiales II		[34]