Table 2.
Measurement definitions (Mm = measurement), with used measuring device, metric, original reference to the measurement, and original name
| Element | Mm | Definition | Metric | Device | Reference | Original name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Humerus | GL | Greatest length. The long axis must lie parallel to the supporting surface. Measured from the caudal major tubercle’s most proximal projection to the distal end’s most distal projection | cm | Measuring box | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Humerus | GLC | Greatest length measured from the humeral caput, measured from the proximal flat surface of the caput to the most distal end of the humerus, parallel to the longitudinal axis | cm | Big calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Humerus | GLI | Greatest length lateral. Measured from the most proximal projection of the greater tubercle to the most distal projection of the middle ridge of the trochlea, between the lateral and medial condyle in parallel with the longitudinal axis | cm | Big calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Humerus | Bp | Greatest breadth of the proximal end. Measured from the most medial projection of the minor tubercle to the most lateral projection of the major tubercle | cm | Measuring box | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Humerus | SD | Smallest breadth of the diaphysis. Smallest mediolateral diameter of the diaphysis. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Humerus | CD | Smallest circumference of the diaphysis. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | cm | Tape measure | This study | |
| Humerus | Bd | Greatest breadth of the distal end. Greatest breadth from the most medial projection of the medial trochlea, beyond the direct articular surface, to the most lateral projection of the lateral trochlea, not including the lateral epicondyle | cm | Measuring box | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Humerus | BT | Greatest breadth of the trochlea. Measured from the most lateral point of the lateral trochlea to the most medial point of the medial trochlea, at the point of the most cranial projection, measured not at a right angle to the longitudinal axis of the humerus but to the imagined mediolateral axis of the trochlea. The epicondyles are not included into this measurement | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Humerus | HT | Height of the trochlea. The height of the medial condyle (trochlea) is measured not at a right angle to the longitudinal axis of the humerus but to the imagined mediolateral axis of the trochlea | mm | Small calipers | Puputti and Niskanen 2008 | HUM TH |
| Humerus | DC | Anterior–posterior depth of the caput. Measured from the most cranial point of the flat articular surface of the humeral caput to the most caudal point of the caudal-distal rim of the caput | mm | Small calipers | Puputti and Niskanen 2008 | HUM HHAP |
| Humerus | HTC | Height trochlear constriction. Vertical diameter of the central trochlear constriction, or depression between the lateral and medial condyle, as parallel to the longitudinal axis of the humerus | mm | Small calipers | Davis 1996 | |
| Humerus | Dp | Greatest depth of the proximal end. Anterior–posterior depth from the most caudal projection of the humeral caput to the most cranial projection of the most distal bulge of the major tubercle, measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the humerus | cm | Measuring box | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Humerus | Dd | Greatest depth of the distal end. Anterior–posterior depth from the most caudal projection of the medial epicondyle to the most cranial point of the medial trochlea. Dd is defined differently by Weinstock 2000a | mm | Small calipers | This study | |
| Humerus | PL | Physiological length. Measured parallel to the longitudinal axis of the humerus from the most distal projection of the flat humeral articular facet to the central constriction of the trochlea | cm | Big calipers | This study | |
| Radioulna | GL | Greatest length of the radioulna. Measured from the most proximal projection of the tubercle of the olecranon to the most distal projection of the styloid process of either the radius or ulna (depending on which is most distal). Measured parallel to the longitudinal axis | cm | Measuring box | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Radioulna | PL | Physiological length of the radius. The longitudinal axis measured from the middle of the lateral ridge of the medial articular facet of the proximal radius to the most distal ridge between the articular surfaces where the radius articulates with the carpal bones | cm | Curved calipers | Niinimäki et al. 2021 | LI |
| Radioulna | Bp | Breadth of the proximal end of the radius. Measured from the most lateral process to the most medial process of the proximal radius, i.e., including tubercles | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Radioulna | BFp | Greatest breadth of the proximal articular facet of the radius. Measured in the same plane as the Bp | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1978 | |
| Radioulna | CD | Smallest circumference of the diaphysis of the radioulna. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | cm | Tape measure | Von den Driesch 1979 | |
| Radioulna | Bd | Greatest breadth of the distal end of the radioulna. Measured from the most medial process of the distal radius to the most lateral projection of the tubercle of the ulnar styloid process, or the most lateral tubercle of the distal radius | mm | Small calipers | This study | |
| Radioulna | SD | Smallest breadth of the radial diaphysis. Smallest mediolateral diameter, excluding the ulna | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1979 | |
| Radioulna | SDD | Smallest depth of the radial diaphysis. Usually measured dolsar-palmar at the height of the antebrachial interosseous space | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1979 | |
| Radioulna | Dd | Depth of the distal end. Measured from the most dorsal projections of the radial medial and lateral tubercles to the most palmar projection of the distal radial, above the radial articular facets | mm | Small calipers | Weinstock 2000a | |
| Radioulna | Dp | Depth of the proximal end. Depth of the medial articular facet | mm | Small calipers | Puputti and Niskanen 2009 | RAD PRAP |
| Radioulna | LO | Length of the olecranon. Measured from the most proximal projection of the tubercle olecranon to the most distal notch of the processus anconeus (or most dorsal notch of the trochlear incisura), measured in parallel to the olecranon’s “own” imaginary axis | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Radioulna | SDO | Smallest depth of the olecranon. Measured from the most dented point on the dorsal ridge to the palmar ridge of the olecranon | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Metacarpus | GL | Greatest length. Measured in the longitudinal axis from the most proximal projection of the articular surface to the most distal projection of the verticuli of the trochlei | cm | Measuring box | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Metacarpus | Bp | Breadth proximal. Maximum medial–lateral diameter of the proximal end, including the tubercles | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Metacarpus | Dp | Depth proximal. Maximum dorsal-palmar diameter of the proximal end, including the tubercles | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Metacarpus | SD | Smallest breadth of the diaphysis. Smallest mediolateral diameter of the diaphysis | mm | Small calipers | Schild 1962; Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Metacarpus | CD | Smallest circumference of the diaphysis. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | cm | Tape measure | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Metacarpus | Bd | Breadth distal. The maximum medial–lateral diameter of the distal end is measured from the most lateral projections of the medial and lateral epicondyles. Perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Metacarpus | BTm | Breadth of the medial trochlea. Greatest medial–lateral diameter of the medial trochlea, perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | Telldahl et al. 2012 | BFdm |
| Metacarpus | BTl | Breadth of the lateral trochlea. Greatest medial–lateral diameter of the lateral trochlea, perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | Telldahl et al. 2012 | BFdl |
| Metacarpus | DVm | Depth of the medial verticulus. Greatest dorsal-palmar diameter of the medial verticulus | mm | Small calipers | Davis 1996; SGWP in Popkin et al. 2012 | DVM |
| Metacarpus | DVl | Depth of the lateral verticulus. Greatest dorsal-palmar diameter of the lateral verticulus | mm | Small calipers | Davis 1996; SGWP in Popkin et al. 2012 | DVL |
| Metacarpus | BAp | Breadth of the proximal articular surface. Greatest medial–lateral diameter of the proximal articular facets, perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | SGWP in Popkin et al. 2012 | BFP |
| Metacarpus | BDF | Breadth of the diaphysis along the distal line of fusion. Greatest medial–lateral diameter of the fusion site of the distal end, including tubercles | mm | Small calipers | Popkin et al. 2012 | BdFus |
| Metacarpus | BA | Breadth between the articular crests. Measured between the most distal points of the crests | mm | Small calipers | Telldahl et al. 2012 | Bcr |
| Metacarpus | GCD | Greatest circumference of the diaphysis. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | cm | Tape measure | This study | |
| Metacarpus | GDD | Greatest depth of the diaphysis. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | This study | |
| Metacarpus | SDD | Smallest depth of the diaphysis. Smallest dorsal-palmar diameter of the diaphysis | mm | Small calipers | This study | |
| Metacarpus | PL | Physiological length. Measured from the most distal point of the proximal medial articular surface to the most distal projection of the lateral epicondyle of the medial trochlea | cm | Curved calipers | This study | |
| Metacarpus | DFp | Depth of the proximal articular facet. Measured from the medial facet, not perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, nor strictly dorsal-palmar, but as shown in Fig. 5e | mm | Small calipers | This study | |
| Femur | GL | Greatest length. Measured from the most proximal projection of the major trochanter to the most distal projection of the trochlear ridge(s) and/or condyle(s) (depending on which point is most distal, which might vary between individuals), parallel to the longitudinal axis of the femur. The bone must not lie flat on the measuring board but with its proximal end slightly raised | cm | Measuring box | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Femur | GLC | Greatest length measured from the most proximal point of femoral caput to the most distal projection of the trochlear ridge(s) and/or condyle(s) (depending on which point is most distal, which might vary between individuals), parallel to the longitudinal axis of the femur | cm | Measuring box | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Femur | Bp | Breadth of the proximal end. Measured from the most lateral projection of the major trochanter to the most medial point of the femoral caput. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Femur | DC | Depth of the femoral caput. Greatest cranial-caudal diameter of the femoral caput in dorsal-plantar. Perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Femur | SD | Smallest breadth of the diaphysis. Smallest mediolateral diameter of the diaphysis. Perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Femur | SDD | Smallest depth of the diaphysis. Smallest cranial-caudal diameter of the diaphysis. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | This study | |
| Femur | CD | Smallest circumference of the diaphysis. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | cm | Tape measure | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Femur | Bd | Breadth of the distal end. Measured from the most lateral projection of the lateral epicondyle to the most medial projection of the medial condyle or epicondyle, depending on which is broader in the individual. Perpendicularly to the longitudinal axis of the femur | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Femur | Dd | Depth of the distal end. Greatest cranial-caudal diameter measured from the most cranial projection of the medial trochlear tubercle (ridge) to the most caudal projection of the medial condyle, perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | cm | Measuring box | Weinstock 1997 | |
| Femur | BT | Breadth of the trochlea. Measured horizontally between the trochlea’s medial and lateral ridges, at the trochlea’s most cranial end. BT is Defined differently by Weinstock 2000a | mm | Small calipers | This study | |
| Femur | PL | Physiological length. Measured between the most proximal point of the femoral caput to the most distal articular surface of the medial condyle, parallel to the longitudinal axis | cm | Big calipers | Niinimäki et al. 2021 | LI |
| Tibia | GL | Greatest length. Measured between the most proximal point(s) of the condyle(s) and the most distal projection of the medial malleolus, parallel to the longitudinal axis | cm | Measuring box | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Tibia | Ll | Length lateral. Measured between the most lateral proximal point of the lateral tibular condyle and the most distal lateral projection of the medial malleolar process, parallel to the longitudinal axis | cm | Big calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Tibia | SD | Smallest breadth of the diaphysis. Smallest mediolateral diameter of the diaphysis. Perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Tibia | SDD | Smallest depth of the diaphysis. Smallest dorsal-plantar diameter of the diaphysis. Perpendicular the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | This study | |
| Tibia | CD | Smallest circumference of the diaphysis. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | cm | Tape measure | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Tibia | Bd | Breadth distal. Measured between the most medial projection of the medial malleolus and most lateral projection of the medial malleolus, perpendicular to the dorsal-plantar axis of the direction of the distal articular grooves | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Tibia | Dd | Depth distal. Measured between the most dorsal projection of the distal tibia and the most plantar projection of the distal tibia, parallel to the dorsal-plantar axis of the direction of the distal articular grooves | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Tibia | Dp | Depth proximal. Measured between the proximal-most dorsal point of the tibial tuberosity and the most plantar projections of the medial and/or lateral tibial condyle(s) (depending on the individual which projects most plantar), perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the tibia | cm | Measuring box | Puputti and Niskanen 2009 | TIB PTAP |
| Tibia | PL | Physiological length. Greatest length between the central intercondylar eminence of the proximal end to the mid-ridge of the distal articular facet. Measured parallel to the longitudinal axis | cm | Curved calipers | Niinimäki et al. 2021 | LI |
| Tibia | BFp | Breadth of the proximal articular facet. Measured between the most medial point of the medial condylar surface to the most lateral point of the lateral condylar surface. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the tibia | mm | Small calipers | Niinimäki et al. 2021 | |
| Tibia | BFd | Breadth of the distal articular facet. The breadth of the articular facet, which articulates with the talus. The malleolar articular facet of the most lateral face is not included in the measurement. Measured perpendicular to the dorsal-plantar axis of the direction of the distal articular grooves | mm | Small calipers | This study | |
| Metatarsus | GL | Greatest length. Measured in the longitudinal axis from the most proximal projection of the articular surface to the most distal projection of the verticuli of the trochlei | cm | Measuring box | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Metatarsus | Bp | Breadth proximal. Maximum medial–lateral diameter of the proximal end, including the tubercles | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Metatarsus | Dp | Depth proximal. Maximum dorsal-plantar diameter of the proximal end, including the tubercles | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Metatarsus | SD | Smallest breadth of the diaphysis. Smallest mediolateral diameter of the diaphysis. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | Schild 1962; Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Metatarsus | CD | Smallest circumference of the diaphysis. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | cm | Tape measure | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Metatarsus | Bd | Breadth distal. Maximum medial–lateral diameter of the distal end measured from the most lateral projections of the medial and lateral epicondyles. Perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Metatarsus | BTm | Breadth of the medial trochlea. Greatest medial–lateral diameter of the medial trochlea, perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | Telldahl et al. 2012 | BFdm |
| Metatarsus | BTl | Breadth of the lateral trochlea. Greatest medial–lateral diameter of the lateral trochlea, perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | Telldahl et al. 2013 | BFdl |
| Metatarsus | DVm | Depth of the medial verticulus. Greatest dorsal-plantar diameter of the medial verticulus. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | Davis 1996; SGWP in Popkin et al. 2012 | DVM |
| Metatarsus | DVl | Depth of the lateral verticulus. Greatest dorsal-plantar diameter of the lateral verticulus. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | Davis 1996; SGWP in Popkin et al. 2012 | DVL |
| Metatarsus | BAp | Breadth of the proximal articular surface. Greatest medial–lateral diameter of the proximal articular facet, perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | SGWP in Popkin et al. 2012 | BFP |
| Metatarsus | BDF | Breadth of the diaphysis along the distal line of fusion. Greatest medial–lateral diameter of the fusion site of the distal end, including tubercles. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | Popkin et al. 2012 | BdFus |
| Metatarsus | BA | Breadth between the articular crests. Measured between the most distal points of the crests | mm | Small calipers | Telldahl et al. 2012 | Bcr |
| Metatarsus | GCD | Greatest circumference of the diaphysis. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | cm | Tape measure | This study | |
| Metatarsus | GDD | Greatest depth of the diaphysis. Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis | mm | Small calipers | This study | |
| Metatarsus | SDD | Smallest depth of the diaphysis. Smallest dorsal-plantar diameter of the diaphysis | mm | Small calipers | This study | |
| Metatarsus | PL | Physiological length. Measured from the most distal point of the proximal medial articular surface to the most distal projection of the lateral epicondyle of the medial trochlea | cm | Curved calipers | This study | |
| Metatarsus | DFp | Depth of the proximal articular facet. Measured from the medial facet, not perpendicular to the longitudinal axis but as shown in Fig. 8e | mm | Small calipers | This study | |
| Pelvis | GL | Greatest length of one half. Measured from the most cranial projection of the iliac crest to the most caudal projection of the tuber ischiadicum. Important that the epiphyseal parts of the tuber coxae and the tuber ischiadicum have fused | cm | Measuring box | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Pelvis | LA | Length of the acetabulum, including the lip. Across the facies lunata, measured in the directions of the ischium and os ilium, including the lip, and in the direction of the os ilium, the measurement is extended to the dent of the lateral musculus rectus femoris attachment site | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Pelvis | LAR | Length of the acetabulum on the rim. Across the facies lunata, measured in the directions of the ischium and os ilium, measured on the inside of the rim of the acetabular articular surface with the femoral caput | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Pelvis | LS | Length of the symphysis. Only when the two pelvic halves have not fused | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Pelvis | SH | Smallest height of the shaft ilium. The maximum dorsal–ventral diameter on the most constricted site of the shaft ilium | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Pelvis | SB | Smallest breadth of the shaft ilium. The minimum medial–lateral diameter on the most constricted site of the shaft ilium | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch 1976 | |
| Pelvis | SC | Smallest circumference of the shaft ilium | cm | Tape measure | Von den Driesch, 1976 | |
| Pelvis | LFo | Inner length of the foramen obturatum. Measured across from the most cranial point close to the acetabulum to the most caudal point towards the ischium | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch, 1976 | |
| Pelvis | GBTc | Greatest breadth across the tubera coxaerum. Only when the two pelvic halves have fused | cm | Measuring box | Von den Driesch, 1976 | |
| Pelvis | GBA | Greatest breadth across the acetabula. Measured from the most lateral projections. Only when the two pelvic halves have fused | cm | Measuring box | Von den Driesch, 1976 | |
| Pelvis | GBTi | Greatest breadth across the tubera ischiadica. Only when the two pelvic halves have fused | cm | Measuring box | Von den Driesch, 1976 | |
| Pelvis | SBl | Smallest breadth across the bodies of the ischia. Only when the two pelvic halves have fused | mm | Small calipers | Von den Driesch, 1976 | |
| Pelvis | DPmin | Minimum diameter of the pubis shaft measured in dorsal–ventral direction | mm | Small calipers | Davis, 1996 | SHPu |
| Pelvis | DAm | Depth of the medial rim of the acetabulum. Measured as the ventral-medial border of the acetabulum. It is essential to consider that the rim is pronounced in some individuals while vague in others; do not measure towards the “bulge” resulting from the negative projection of the acetabulum | mm | Small calipers | Davis, 1996 | MRDA |
| Pelvis | DPS | Greatest depth of the pubic symphysis. Along the dorsal–ventral axis | mm | Small calipers | This study |