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. 2022 Dec 9;7:159. doi: 10.1038/s41541-022-00587-6

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — a Nanoparticle vaccine delivery systems can protect antigens from enzymatic degradation. b Depending on the size of the nanoparticles, they can be passively delivered to lymph nodes and enhance antigen-presenting cells (APCs) to take up and present antigens. d Hence, germinal center (GC) formation is enhanced. c, e–h Nanoparticle vaccine delivery systems can induce cellular and humoral immune responses simultaneously with minimum side effects. i Besides, nanoparticle vaccine delivery systems can improve the levels of antigen-specific memory T cells and B cells. The figure was made from Biorender.com.