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. 2022 Dec 2;23(23):15166. doi: 10.3390/ijms232315166

Figure 2.

Figure 2

mtDNA leakage induces inflammation activation. mtDNA is released into the cytoplasm through several pathways, such as the BAK/BAX pore, VDAC oligomer pore, and mPTP. mtDNA released into the cytoplasm activates inflammatory responses through multiple signaling pathways, including cGAS-STING, TLR9, NLRP3, and AIM2 inflammasome. (cGAS, cyclic GMP-AMP synthase; STING, stimulator of interferon genes; cGAMP, cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine monophosphate; p-TBK1, phospho-TANK-binding kinase-1; TLR9, toll-like receptor 9; TRIF, TIR domain-containing adapter-inducing IFN β; MyD88, myeloid differentiation protein 88; NLRP3, nod-like receptor pyrin 3; ASC, apoptosis associated speck like protein; AIM2, absent in melanoma 2; VDAC, voltage-dependent anion channel; mPTP, mitochondrial permeability transition pore; TNFα, tumor necrosis factor α; IL-6, interleukin-6; IL-18, interleukin-18; IL-1β, interleukin-1β; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-B; p-IRF3, phospho-interferon regulatory factor-3; IFN, interferon).