Table 10.

Comparison of model-based testing approaches.

Author	Model Type	Model Characteristics	Use Case	Solution or Concept
Aouadi [76]	EFSM	An automatic formal testing tool for distributed systems is proposed, which permits the automatic generation of test cases	ITS	Solution
Dos Santos [74]	PrT net	Create threat and attack model with PrT net at an abstract level	Vehicular systems and networks.	Concept
Dos Santos [79]	Attack tree, CSP	Use CSP to create automotive bus systems and corresponding attack models	Vehicular systems	Concept
Cheah [80]	Attack tree, CSP	The attack tree can be transferred into a formal structure with CSP, and test cases can be generated automatically	Bluetooth-enabled OBD device	Concept
Cheah [71]	Attack tree	Develop a proof-of-concept tool to execute testing on vehicle compromise based on the attack model	Bluetooth, diagnostics device	Concept
Heneghan [72]	CSP	Security evaluation of ECU with CSP formal models	ECUs	Concept
Mahmood [73]	Attack tree, CSP	Construct threat model with attack trees and generate test cases by model-checking	OTA	Solution
Sommer [75]	EFSM	Security model with attack privileges and vulnerabilities	Vehicle networks	Concept
Marksteiner [77]	Cyber digital twin model	A cyber digital twin model using binary analysis and generating test cases through formal transformation, model checking, and fault injection	Vehicular systems	Concept
Marksteiner [78]	Attack tree	Construct attack tree model with fingerprinting and model learning	Vehicular systems	Concept