Table 1.
The effect of different types and intensities of physical exercise (low, moderate, and high) on the stimulation of exerkines.
| Physical Exercise Type (L/M/H) | Exerkines | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Myokines | Cardiokines | Adipokines | Hepatokines | Outcome | Reference | |
| Resistance training (Resistance weight training exercise with a resistance machine) |
(L/M) | (L/M) | (L/M) | (L/M) | Resistance training with low to moderate intensity can reduce inflammation and increase muscle strength by changing myokines. This can be effective in COVID-19 patients who suffer from decreased muscle strength and high inflammation during the illness. Moreover, resistance training with these intensities can benefit patients discharged from the hospital. However, high-intensity resistance training cannot positively affect myokines, and the results of articles have reported an increase in inflammation and a decrease in muscle strength. The effect of resistance training on cardiokines with low to moderate intensity can be suitable for improving high blood pressure and reducing inflammation. However, high-intensity resistance training may not be good for COVID-19 patients or those discharged from the hospital. Although studies on cardiokines are very limited, they can increase inflammation and possibly increase blood pressure. Low to moderate resistance training has a good effect on adipokines and hepatokines and can reduce inflammation, improve immune system function, improve insulin sensitivity, and increase fat tissue metabolism. In connection with high-intensity resistance training, the increase in inflammation is seen because of the behavioral changes in fat tissue and the decrease in the body function’s immune system. |
|
| ↓myostatin ↓TGF-β1 ↓IL-6 ↑IL-15 ↑decorin ↑irisin ↑BDNF ↑IL-15 ↑FGF ↔SPARC |
↓ANP ↔BNP ↑IL-33 ↓IL-6 ↑IL-18 ↓IL-1β ↓Follistatin ↑FGF ↔Sfrp ↑Neurotrophins ↓TNF-α ↓TGF-β |
↓Leptin ↑Adiponectin ↑Chemerin ↓Visfatin ↓Omentin ↑Vaspin ↔Progranulin ↔CTRP-4 |
↑Activin-E ↔ANGPTL3 ↔ANGPTL4 ↑ANGPTL6 ↑Fetuin-A ↑FGF21 ↓Follistatin ↑GDF15 ↓Hepassocin ↑IGF1 ↓LECT2 ↑Lipocalin 13 ↑Selenoprotein-P ↑Tsukushi |
[78,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110] | ||
| H | H | H | H | |||
| ↓myostatin ↓TGF-β1 ↑IL-6 ↑IL-15 ↑decorin ↑irisin ↑BDNF ↑IL-15 ↑FGF ↑SPARC |
↔ANP ↔BNP ↔IL-33 ↔IL-6 ↑IL-18 ↓IL-1β ↓Follistatin ↑FGF ↔Sfrp ↑Neurotrophins ↓TNF-α ↓TGF-β |
↔Leptin ↑↔Adiponectin ↑↓Chemerin ↓↔Visfatin ↓↑Omentin ↑↔Vaspin ↔↑Progranulin ↔↑CTRP-4 |
↓Activin-E ↑ANGPTL3 ↑ANGPTL4 ↓ANGPTL6 ↓Fetuin-A ↔FGF21 ↔Follistatin ↔GDF15 ↑Hepassocin ↔IGF1 ↔LECT2 ↓Lipocalin 13 ↔Selenoprotein-P ↔Tsukushi |
|||
| TRX | (L/M) | (L/M) | (L/M) | (L/M) | Low- to moderate-intensity TRX training can positively change some myokines, resulting in improved muscle strength and reduced inflammation. However, no studies were found in connection with high-intensity resistance training. Moreover, TRX training with low to moderate intensity can probably lead to a decrease in inflammation or an increase in metabolism and an improvement in the functioning of the immune system, with positive changes in adipokines; however, the results are limited and no study was found concerning high intensity. |
[111,112,113,114,115] |
| ↓myostatin ↔TGF-β1 ↔IL-6 ↔IL-15 ↔decorin ↑irisin ↔BDNF ↔IL-15 ↑FGF ↔SPARC |
N/A | ↓Leptin ↑Adiponectin ↑Chemerin ↓Visfatin ↓Omentin ↑Vaspin ↔Progranulin ↔CTRP-4 |
N/A | |||
| H | H | H | H | |||
| N/A | N/A | Leptin? Adiponectin? Chemerin? Visfatin? Omentin? Vaspin? Progranulin? CTRP-4? |
N/A | |||
| Yoga | (L/M) | (L/M) | (L/M) | (L/M) | No study focusing on exerkines was found. However, studies showed that practicing yoga can lead to a decrease in inflammatory cytokines and an increase in anti-inflammatory cytokines. However, it is impossible to conclude whether yoga focusing on exerkines is suitable. | [116,117,118,119,120] |
| N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | |||
| H | H | H | H | |||
| N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | |||
| Swimming | (L) | (L) | (L/M) | (L) | Low-intensity swimming training seems not to affect myokines, but moderate to intense training shows positive changes that can reduce inflammation and increase muscle strength. Concerning adipokines, low- to moderate-intensity swimming training can cause positive changes in adipokines and reduce inflammation and improve immune system function. Nevertheless, it seems like this concerns low intensity. No study was found in connection with other exerkines, but some studies have reported improved cardiovascular function and improved metabolism. |
[121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130] |
| ↔myostatin ↔TGF-β1 ↓IL-6 ↓IL-15 ↔decorin ↔irisin ↔BDNF ↔IL-15 ↔FGF ↔SPARC |
N/A | ↓Leptin ↑Adiponectin ↑Chemerin ↓Visfatin ↓Omentin ↑Vaspin ↔Progranulin ↔CTRP-4 |
N/A | |||
| (H/M) | (H/M) | (H) | (H/M) | |||
| ↑myostatin ↓TGF-β1 ↓IL-6 ↓IL-15 ↑decorin ↑irisin ↑BDNF ↑IL-15 ↑FGF ↔SPARC |
N/A | Leptin↑ Adiponectin↓Chemerin↑ Visfatin↑ Omentin↑ Vaspin↑ Progranulin↑ CTRP-4↑ |
N/A | |||
| Walking OR running | (L/M) | (L/M) | (L/M) | (L/M) | Walking with low to moderate intensity (running) positively affects some myokines, reducing inflammation and, sometimes, increasing muscle hypertrophy. However, in intense running, negative changes in myokines can lead to increased inflammation. The association between cardiokines and low- to moderate-intensity walking suggests that changes in some cardiokines can lead to lower blood pressure and, in some cases, reduced inflammation. It also improves cardiovascular endurance. However, with high intensity, there are few results and, in some cases, an increase in inflammation is seen. In connection with walking with low to moderate intensity (running) and adipokines and hepatokines, it seems that the best results occur and significant changes are seen in adipokines and hepatokines, the results of which are reducing inflammation, improving the function of the immune system, increasing metabolism, and increasing insulin sensitivity. |
[78,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142] |
| ↑myostatin ↓TGF-β1 ↓IL-6 ↓IL-15 ↔decorin ↔irisin ↑BDNF ↑IL-15 ↔FGF ↔SPARC |
↓ANP ↓BNP ↑IL-33 ↓IL-6 ↑IL-18 ↓IL-1β ↓Follistatin ↑FGF ↓Sfrp ↑Neurotrophins ↓TNF-α ↓TGF-β |
↓Leptin ↑Adiponectin ↑Chemerin ↓Visfatin ↓Omentin ↑Vaspin ↔Progranulin ↔CTRP-4 |
↑Activin-E ↔ANGPTL3 ↔ANGPTL4 ↑ANGPTL6 ↑Fetuin-A ↑FGF21 ↓Follistatin ↑GDF15 ↓Hepassocin ↑IGF1 ↓LECT2 ↑Lipocalin 13 ↑Selenoprotein-P ↑Tsukushi |
|||
| H | H | H | H | |||
| ↓myostatin ↑TGF-β1 ↑IL-6 ↑IL-15 ↓decorin ↓irisin ↔BDNF ↓IL-15 ↓FGF ↔SPARC |
↔? ANP ↔? BNP ↓IL-33 ↑IL-6 ↓IL-18 ↔↑IL-1β ↔Follistatin ↔FGF ↓Sfrp ↑Neurotrophins ↑TNF-α ↑TGF-β |
Leptin↑ Adiponectin↓ Chemerin↑ Visfatin↑ Omentin↑ Vaspin↑ Progranulin↑ CTRP-4↑ |
↓Activin-E ↑ANGPTL3 ↑ANGPTL4 ↓ANGPTL6 ↓Fetuin-A ↓FGF21 ↑Follistatin ↔GDF15 ↑Hepassocin ↓IGF1 ↓LECT2 ↓Lipocalin 13 ↔Selenoprotein-P ↔Tsukushi |
|||
| Cycling | (L/M) | (L/M) | (L/M) | (L/M) | Cycling with low to moderate intensity can increase the strength of lower body muscles and reduce inflammation by changing myokines, which cannot be seen at high intensity. Moreover, low- to moderate-intensity cycling can lead to increased muscular endurance, cardiovascular endurance, blood pressure, and cardiac output. These results were not seen at high intensity and increased inflammation occurs at high intensity. Low- to moderate-intensity cycling focusing on adipokines can reduce inflammation and improve immune function. No study was found in connection with high intensity and hepatokines changes. |
[99,135,143,144,145] |
| ↓myostatin ↔TGF-β1 ↓IL-6 ↓IL-15 ↑decorin ↑irisin ↑BDNF ↑IL-15 ↑FGF ↑SPARC |
↓ANP ↓BNP ↑IL-33 ↓IL-6 ↑IL-18 ↓IL-1β ↓Follistatin ↑FGF ↓Sfrp ↑Neurotrophins ↓TNF-α ↓TGF-β |
↓Leptin ↑Adiponectin ↑Chemerin ↓Visfatin ↓Omentin ↑Vaspin ↔Progranulin ↔CTRP-4 |
N/A | |||
| H | H | H | H | |||
| ↓myostatin ↑TGF-β1 ↑IL-6 ↑IL-15 ↓decorin ↓irisin ↔BDNF ↓IL-15 ↓FGF ↔SPARC |
↔? ANP ↔? BNP ↓IL-33 ↑IL-6 ↓IL-18 ↔↑IL-1β ↔Follistatin ↔FGF ↓Sfrp ↑Neurotrophins ↑TNF-α ↑TGF-β |
N/A | N/A | |||
L: low intensity, M: moderate intensity, H: high intensity, TGF: transforming growth factor, IL: interleukin, BDNF: brain-derived neurotrophic factor, FGF: fibroblast growth factor, SPARC: secreted protein and rich in cysteine, ANP: atrial natriuretic peptide, BNP: brain natriuretic peptide, Sfrp: secreted frizzled-related proteins, TNF: tumor necrosis factor, ANGPTL3-4-6: angiopoietin-like protein 3-4-6, GDF: growth differentiation factor, IGF: insulin-like growth factor, LECT: leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin, CTRP: cancer therapeutics response portal, N/A: unreported or little irrelevant research, ↑: increase, ↓ decrease, ↔: unchanged or unknown, ?: not defined.