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. 2022 Nov 29;12(23):3354. doi: 10.3390/ani12233354

Table 1.

The effects of temperature manipulation on chick weights at hatch and on hatchability, body weight, heat production, and the hormonal levels of post-hatch chicks.

No. Thermal Manipulation (TM) Temperature Thermal Manipulation Age/Embryonic Day (E) Results References
1. 39.5 °C for 12 h (Intermittent) and 24 h/day Continuous) E7 to E16 Plasma corticosterone levels at hatch were significantly higher in the TM-treated chicks
No difference in hatchability between the control and TM group
The development of the thyroid and adrenal axis lowered their functional set points during TM
[13]
2. 39.5 °C for 12 h (Intermittent) and 24 h/day Continuous) E7 to E16. Continuous TM enhanced thermotolerance on heat stress at days 2 and 10 of age [14]
3. 39.5 °C 3 h on E8 to E10 (early: EA)
3 h on E16 to E18 (late: LA)
The EA and LA chicks exhibited significantly low body temperature at hatching
Late treatment enhanced breast muscle growth
Improved long-term thermotolerance in chickens
[15]
4. 39.5 °C 3, 6, 12 or 24 h per day from E16 to E18 Recommended that 3 h of TM per day during E16 to E18 improved thermotolerance acquisition.
Higher hatchability and growth
[16]
5. 38.8 ℃ 6 h on E 10 and 14. Increased hatch weight and 42 d body weight
Low plasma triacylglycerol at 42 d
Increased insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-1) gene expression
[17]
6. 39.5 °C 12 h/day on E 7 to 16 Lower body temperature at hatching
Changes in plasma thyroid hormone concentrations.
Breast muscle yield was enhanced
[18]
7. 38.5 °C 3 h/day on E16,17 and 18 Plasma concentration of thyroid hormones (T4 and T3) was lower
No effect of the treatment on the post-hatch plasma corticosterone concentration
No effect on the hatchability
[19]
8. 34.6 °C (low)
37.6 °C (control), 40.6 °C (high) for
4 h/embryonic day from E16–E18, Embryos in the high-temperature treatment group shifted toward a more anaerobic metabolism
  • lower partial pressure of O2 and a higher partial pressure of CO2 in the air-related cells

  • lower blood pH

  • higher lactic acid production

Embryos in low-temperature treatment group shifted toward lower metabolism.
  • higher plasma triglyceride level; higher liver glycogen level; higher relative yolk weight

[20]
9. 39.0 °C for 2 h on E13–E17
  • Downregulation of T4

  • Elevated blood pH

  • Increased O2 demand

Upregulation of corticosterone synthesis
[21]
10. 38.2 to 38.4 °C for 24 h daily (chronic warm incubated) and 38.2 to 38.4 °C (warmth-stimulated). 2 h daily on E 18 until hatch Female chickens adapted well to warm conditions and performed better (feed intake, body weight gain, and body weight) during the final growing period
The daily feed intake for male chickens incubated under chronic temperature was negatively affected during the final growing period
No effect on the hatchability and chick quality.
[22]
11. 39.6 °C 6 h/day on E 0–8 (early)
6 h/day E10 to 18 (late)
Applications of TM in the early and late
periods of incubation:
  • Decreased hatchability rate

  • No adverse effects on embryo morphology,

development balance, and chick weight
High temperature in late embryonic days reduced chick quality.
[23]
12. 38.5 °C and 40 °C 6 h on E16,
9 h on E17
12 h on E18
Hatchbility not affected
Body weights of thermally manipulated chickens were higher compared with controls
Significant reduction in the plasma level of corticosterone in TM groups
[24]
13. 38.4 °C 6 h on E 19
3 h on E19 to 20
Higher body weight and body weight gain in broiler chickens
Better FCR compared to control
Low feed intake
Improved FCR
Male broilers obtained higher body weight with embryos exposure to higher temperature for 3 h in days 19 and 20
Post-hatch performance of broiler chickens in TM of broiler embryos during late embryogenesis period were improved
[25]
14. 39.5 °C
39.5 °C
Group 1: 3 h on E4–6
Group 2: 90 min and then returned to 37.5 °C for 60 min and lastly the temperature was raised again for 39.5 °C for 90 min on E4–6
Low hatchability rate in thermally manipulated chickens
Body surface temperature and cloacal temperature increased in thermally manipulated chickens
Total weight gain and daily weight gain lower in group 1
Triiodothyronine (T3) hormone concentration and globulin levels were low in thermally manipulated chickens
[26]
15. 39 °C 2, 3 and 4 h per day on E16–18 No significant effect on hatchability traits and embryonic mortality percentages
No significant differences in body temperature in all TM-treated groups
Decreases in plasma total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol
4 h/day TM at E16 to 18 days improve thermo tolerance acquisition, improved chick quality and productivity and low embryonic mortality
[27]
16. 39.5 °C 3 h/day on E11–16 TM treated group has no effcet on hatchability and embryonic mortality
No significant differences in the post-hatch performance and quality of the chicks
Eggshell temperature and serum concentrations of corticosterone were found to be higher in the TM group
[28]
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