Figure 2.

Immunomodulatory effects of TRAIL DR pathways. The TRAIL/TRAIL-R pathway can impart both pro- and anti- tumorigenic effect on the tumor microenvironment. Endogenous TRAIL expressed by the immune cells of the tumor microenvironment (left panel), or exogenous TRAIL contribute to the anti-tumorigenic defense mechanism of TRAIL, thus killing the tumor cells (shown on the left). On the other hand, exogenous TRAIL either directly or via immune cells may activate the secretion of inflammatory cytokines promoting infiltration of immune suppressor cells (M2 macrophages, Tregs, Tumor Associated Neutrophils [TAN]/N2 TAN, pro-tumoral monocytes and B cells), resulting in immune escape contributing to pro-tumorigenic effect of TRAIL (shown on the right). Figure was created with BioRender.com (accessed on 8 November 2022).