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. 2022 Dec 2;27(23):8473. doi: 10.3390/molecules27238473

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© 2022 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Various mechanisms of action of propolis in modulating inflammation towards the regulatory balance. This figure is constructed based on the biochemical and molecular markers investigated in the 166 included papers. Propolis appears to inhibit and downregulate TLR4, MyD88, IRAK4, TRIF, and NLRP inflammasomes, and their associated pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ, and TNF-α. Propolis also decreases the migration of immune cells such as macrophages and neutrophils, possibly by downregulating chemokines CXCL9 and CXCL10.