Table 1.
Effects and mechanisms of pectin on postprandial and fasting blood glucose levels with human subjects.
| Subject | Reference | Effect | Mechanisms | Term of Ingestion | Pectin Information | Pectin Dosage or Concentration | Diet |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Human Experiments | |||||||
| 8 non-insulin dependent and 3 insulin-dependent diabetic patients | [24] | ↓ pBGL * | - | single intake | NA | 16 g guar and 10 g pectin | 16 g guar and 10 g pectin to the control meal containing 106 g carbohydrate |
| healthy human: age 19–33 | [25] | ↓ pBGL | - | single intake | NA | 10 pectin in 80 g marmalade; 33 mg/mL | 70 g white bread + 16 g butter + 80 g marmalade + 300 mL of tea (43 g milk) |
| healthy human: age 25–32 | [26] | ↓ pBGL | increase viscosity; delay gastric emptying | single intake | NA | 72.5 mg/mL; 5.5% wt | glucose: 50 g in 200 mL |
| 11 human volunteers: age 20–40 | [27] | ↓ pBGL | increase viscosity; slow absorption; prolong transit time | single intake | NA | 14.5 g pectin; ~36 mg/mL | 50 g glucose, 25 g xylose, 15 g lactulose, and 40 g Pure Lemon Juice in 400 mL of water |
| 9 post-gastric surgery patients | [28] | flattening pBGL | increase viscosity; Prolonged absorption | single intake | HM-pectin | 14.5 g HM pectin; 36.25 mg/mL | 50 g glucose + 400 mL water + 40 g of pure lemon juice + 14.5 g of HM-pectin |
| healthy male: age 22–26, BMI 20 | [29] | ↓ pBGL | increase viscosity | single intake | HM-pectin DE 68%; 140 kDa | 30 g; 10% wt% | 50 g glucose in 20% solution (Aguettant, France) alone or mixed with 30 g pectin |
| 30 healthy males: age 18–45 | [30] | ↓ pBGL | - | single intake | soybean pectin | 10 g; 16.7 mg/mL | 10 g pectin + 50 g glucose + 600 mL water |
| 8 diabetes: average age 54, BMI 28; 8 healthy: average age 21, BMI 21. |
[31] | ↓ pBGL | by prolonging intestinal digestion and/or absorption | single intake | natural pectin in apple and whole grain bread | high fiber group-12 g, 12% (wt%); low fiber group-4 g, 7% (wt%) | Margarine milk cheese bread apple |
| 43 diabetic patient volunteers: age 57–73, average weight 66.8 kg, average BMI 27.8 | [32] | ↓ fBGL | increase viscosity, (hypothesis) | long term intake | yellow passion fruit peel flour | about 6.3 g/day | 30 g flour, equal to 17.4 g of total fiber (6.3 g of soluble fiber and 11.1 g of insoluble fiber), |
| 11 healthy volunteers: age 22–35 | [33] | ↑ pBGL | accelerate gastric emptying | single intake | NA | 90 g; 180 mg/mL | 400 mL, 400 kcal; protein, 14.8 g; fat, 14.4 g; glucose, 52.8 g; dietary fiber, 4 g + inorganic salts |
| 10 healthy humans | [34] | × pBGL | slowed gastric emptying | single intake | pectin in drink | 2 g | 2 eggs (60 g), 30 mL milk, 25 g butter, 2 slices of toast and 300 mL high-glucose drink 61.5 g carbohydrate. 655 kcal |
| 10 healthy male: age 21–33, 56.8–73.2 kg, BMI 19.4–23.9 | [35] | × pBGL | slowed gastric emptying | single intake | NA | 5 g; 10 mg/mL | 450 kcal energy and 500 mL; 70 g Maltodextrin + 5 g glucose + 9 g fat + 17 g protein |
| 13 healthy adults: age 18–37 | [36] | × pBGL | - | 4 weeks | pectin baked in muffin | 20 g/day | 2400-calorie, 50% carbohydrate, 3 g crude fiber. |
| 66 unhealthy human volunteers: age 30–65, 70–90 kg, BMI 25–32 | [37] | × pBGL & fBGL | - | 12 weeks | SBP | 16 g/day; 40 mg/mL SBP (soluble fiber content, 76%) | was 40 g white bread, 40 g cucumber, 160 g orange juice and 2 dL drink |
* ↓ represents down regulation; × represents having no effect; ↑ represents up regulation.