Table 1.
Association of paraben exposure in utero and adiposity-related measures (ARM).
| Study/Country | Sample Size | Year of Recruitment | Type of Study | Time of Sample Collection | Matrices | ARM | Major Shortcomings | Major Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Güil-Oumrait et al. 2022, Spain [39] a | 1015 mother–child pairs (500 males; 515 females) | 2003–2008 | Prospective | First and third trimesters | Urine | BMI; BMI z-score | High temporal variability in paraben concentrations due to the lack of serial urine collections over the pregnancy; health effects were assessed at asingle time point (11 years). | No association was identified between maternal urinary concentrations of parabens and adiposity measures of the child at 11 years of age. |
| Golestanzadeh et al. 2022, Iran [28] b | 128 pregnant women and 142 newborns | 2019–2021 | Cross-sectional | During C-section | Amniotic fluid | Newborn weight, head, chest, hip, and arm circumference | Only women who underwent C-sections were enrolled (selection bias); small sample size; only one spot sample was collected; cross-sectional nature of the study design; no maternal caloric intake was considered in the analysis. | BuP concentrations in the amniotic fluids were positively associated with weight, hip, and arm circumference but negatively correlated with height, head, and chest circumference of the newborns. MeP concentrations in the amniotic fluids were negatively associated with head circumference, chest, hip, and arm circumference but positively associated with the height of the newborns; EtP concentrations in the amniotic fluids were negatively associated with arm circumference but positively associated with the height of the newborns; PrP concentrations in the amniotic fluids were negatively associated with arm circumference of the newborns. |
| Reimann et al. 2021, Belgium [31] c | 218 mother–child pairs, (112 males and 106 females) | 2014–2017 | Prospective | During delivery | Placenta | BMI z-score | No information was available for the child’s breastfeeding status, caloric intake, or postnatal paraben exposure; only one spot sample was collected. | Placental EtP concentrations were negatively associated with children’s BMI z-scores. |
| Hojsager et al. 2021, Demark [36] d | 312 mother–child pairs | 2010 and 2012 | Prospective | Early third trimester | Urine | Fat mass, body mass; BMI z-score | The women enrolled in the study were older and more often nulliparous compared to the background population (selection bias); no information was available about weight gain during pregnancy; only one spot sample was collected; childhood exposure to parabens was not assessed; childhood caloric intake was not considered in the analysis. | Maternal urinary BuP concentrations were positively associated with total body fat percentage and android fat percentage in boys. |
| Karzi et al. 2021, Greece [29] | 99 mother–newborn pairs (41 males; 44 females) | Unknown | Prospective | Second trimester | Urine/amniotic fluid | Birth weight, length, and head circumference | Low prevalence of parabens detected in amniotic fluid; small sample size; only one spot sample was collected; maternal caloric intake was not considered in the analysis. | No association was identified between maternal parabens in either urine or amniotic fluid and adiposity-related measures in the newborns. |
| Berger et al. 2021, United States [38] e | 309 mother–child pairs | Since 1999 | Prospective | First and second trimesters | Urine | BMI, BMI z-score; overweight/obese status | Lack of ability to assess sex-specific associations; childhood exposure to parabens was not assessed. | Maternal urinary PrP concentrations were positively associated with BMI z-scores and overweight/obesity status of the child at 5 years of age. |
| Vrijens et al. 2020, Belgium [30] | 142 mother–child pairs (74 males; 66 females) | 2014–2016 | Cross-sectional | During delivery | Placenta | Birth weight, length, and head circumference | Cross-sectional nature of the study design; small sample size; only one spot sample was collected; maternal caloric intake was not considered in the analysis. | Placental total parabens were negatively associated with birth weight and head circumference in girls; EtP concentrations were negatively associated with head circumference in girls. |
| Wen, et al. 2020, China [32] | 613 pregnant women | 2014–2015 | Prospective | During each trimester | Urine | Gestational weight gain (GWG) and GWG rate (kg/week) | Neither the frequency of use of personal care products during pregnancy nor maternal caloric intake was considered in the analysis. | First-trimester MeP, EtP, PrP, and total parabens levels in the women’s urine were positively associated with an increase in the GWG rate of the first-trimester, and these associations were stronger than those of the second or third trimesters. |
| Jamal et al. 2020, Iran [33] | 189 mother–child pairs (66 males; 92 females) | 2016 | Prospective | First trimester | Urine | Birth weight, length, and head circumference | Small sample size; only one spot sample was collected; maternal caloric intake was not considered in the analysis. | Maternal urinary BuP concentrations were positively associated with the birth weight of boys; maternal urinary PrP concentrations were negatively associated with the birth length of girls; maternal urinary MeP and BuP concentrations were positively associated with the head circumference in girls. |
| Leppert, et al. 2020, German [37] f | 626 mother–child pairs, (108 males; 115 females) | 2006–2008 | Prospective | Third trimester | Urine | BMI | No information was available for postnatal paraben exposure; only one spot sample was collected; childhood caloric intake was not considered in the analysis. | Maternal urinary BuP concentrations were positively associated with the overweight status of the children within the first eight years of life, with a stronger trend observed in girls. |
| Chang et al. 2019, Taiwan [34] | 199 mother–child pairs (99 males; 100 females) | 2014–2015 | Prospective | Third trimester | Urine | Birth weight, body length, head, and thoracic circumference; Ponderal Index | Small sample size; highly educated pregnant women were enrolled in the study (selection bias); only one spot sample was collected; maternal caloric intake was not considered in the analysis. | Maternal urinary MeP concentrations were positively associated with the head circumference and Ponderal Index in boys; maternal urinary MeP concentrations were negatively associated with the birth weight, length, head circumference, and thoracic circumference in girls. |
| Wu, et al. 2019, China [35] g | 850 mother–child pairs (446 males; 404 females) | 2014–2015 | Prospective | During each trimester | Urine | Z-scores for weight and height | High temporal variability in paraben concentrations throughout pregnancy; postnatal paraben exposure was assessed. | Maternal urinary EtP concentrations were negatively associated with the weight z-scores of the child at birth; third-trimester urinary EtP concentrations were negatively associated with the weight z-scores at birth, 1 and 2 years in boys. |
| Wu, et al. 2017, China [41] | 1016 mother–child pairs (527 male; 489 females) | 2012–2014 | Prospective | Within three days before delivery | Urine | Birth length and weight | Only one spot sample was collected; maternal caloric intake was not considered in the analysis. | Maternal urinary MeP concentrations were positively associated with the birth length in boys. |
Footnotes: a BMI information was collected at 11 years of age; b number of male and female newborns was not provided; c a subset of 63 newborns was followed for 29 months to monitor BMI z-scores; d number of male and female newborns was not provided; adiposity-related measures were assessed at 7 years of age; e number of male and female newborns was not provided; adiposity-related measures were assessed at 5 years of age; f newborns were followed from 1 to 8 years of age; g adiposity-related measures were assessed at birth, 6 months, 1, and 2 years of age.