TABLE 1.
The Baseline Characteristics of All Involved Studies in This Meta-analysis
| First Author | Year | Country | Gender | Age, y | Exposure Subjects | Sample Size | Study Type | Infectious Disease | Method | Type of Questionnaire | Assessment of Different Kinds of Exposures | Mental Disorder | Effect Size | 95% LL | 95% UL |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chan | 2004 | Singapore | All | >18 | Health care workers | 661 | Cross-section study | SARS | Questionnaire | GHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Psychological distress | 1.60 | 1.10 | 2.50 |
| Chan | 2004 | Singapore | All | >18 | Health care workers | 661 | Cross-section study | SARS | Questionnaire | GHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Psychological distress | 1.40 | 1.02 | 2.00 |
| Tam | 2004 | China | All | 33 | Health care workers | 652 | Cross-section study | SARS | Questionnaire | GHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Psychological distress | 1.00 | 0.73 | 1.38 |
| Verma | 2004 | Singapore | All | >18 | Health care workers | 721 | Cross-section study | SARS | Questionnaire | GHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Psychological distress | 2.90 | 1.30 | 6.30 |
| Sim | 2004 | Singapore | All | >18 | Health care workers | 277 | Cross-section study | SARS | Questionnaire | GHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Psychological distress | 0.82 | 0.39 | 1.72 |
| Sim | 2004 | Singapore | All | >18 | Health care workers | 277 | Cross-section study | SARS | Questionnaire | GHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Psychological distress | 0.51 | 0.17 | 1.50 |
| Leung | 2005 | China | All | >18 | General population | 480 | Longitudinal study | SARS | Random-digit dialing | STAI | Exposed to epidemics | Anxiety | 2.63 | 1.43 | 4.84 |
| Leung | 2005 | China | All | >18 | General population | 480 | Longitudinal study | SARS | Random-digit dialing | STAI | Exposed to epidemics | Anxiety | 2.95 | 1.56 | 5.60 |
| Leung | 2005 | China | All | >18 | General population | 272 | Longitudinal study | SARS | Random-digit dialing | STAI | Exposed to epidemics | Anxiety | 0.87 | 0.42 | 1.81 |
| Leung | 2005 | China | All | >18 | General population | 272 | Longitudinal study | SARS | Random-digit dialing | STAI | Exposed to epidemics | Anxiety | 1.04 | 0.43 | 2.51 |
| Wu | 2009 | China | All | >18 | Health care workers | 549 | Cross-section study | SARS | Questionnaire | IES-R | Exposed to epidemics | Posttraumatic stress | 3.47 | 1.90 | 6.20 |
| Wu | 2009 | China | All | >18 | Health care workers | 549 | Cross-section study | SARS | Questionnaire | IES-R | Relatives or friends infected | Posttraumatic stress | 3.74 | 1.80 | 7.60 |
| Peng | 2010 | China | All | ≥18 | Health care workers | 1278 | Cross-section study | SARS | Random-digit dialing | BSRS | Perceived epidemics as serious | Psychological distress | 1.27 | 0.54 | 2.98 |
| Cao | 2020 | China | All | ≥18 | Students | 7143 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Relatives or friends infected | Anxiety | 3.01 | 2.38 | 3.80 |
| Choi | 2020 | China | All | ≥18 | General population | 500 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Perceived epidemics as serious | Depression | 1.86 | 1.37 | 2.52 |
| Choi | 2020 | China | All | ≥18 | General population | 500 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Perceived epidemics as serious | Anxiety | 1.73 | 1.25 | 2.40 |
| Gualano | 2020 | Italy | All | ≥18 | General population | 1515 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Depression | 0.99 | 0.73 | 1.34 |
| Gualano | 2020 | Italy | All | ≥18 | General population | 1515 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Anxiety | 1.41 | 1.04 | 1.89 |
| Gómez-Salgado | 2020 | Spain | All | ≥18 | General population | 4180 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Psychological distress | 1.24 | 1.03 | 1.50 |
| Gómez-Salgado | 2020 | Spain | All | ≥18 | General population | 4180 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Psychological distress | 1.20 | 0.98 | 1.46 |
| Gómez-Salgado | 2020 | Spain | All | ≥18 | General population | 4180 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Psychological distress | 1.26 | 1.05 | 1.50 |
| Gómez-Salgado | 2020 | Spain | All | ≥18 | General population | 4180 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GHQ | Relatives or friends infected | Psychological distress | 1.08 | 0.88 | 1.32 |
| Gómez-Salgado | 2020 | Spain | All | ≥18 | General population | 4180 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GHQ | Relatives or friends infected | Psychological distress | 1.11 | 0.69 | 1.80 |
| Guo | 2020 | China | All | ≥18 | General population | 2441 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PTSD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 1.21 | 0.92 | 1.60 |
| Guo | 2020 | China | All | ≥18 | General population | 2441 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PTSD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Depression | 1.39 | 1.08 | 1.80 |
| Huang | 2020 | China | All | ≥18 | General population | 7236 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Online survey | GAD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Anxiety | 1.30 | 0.82 | 2.08 |
| Huang | 2020 | China | All | ≥18 | General population | 7236 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Online survey | CES-D | Direct contact with suspected patients | Depression | 1.02 | 0.58 | 1.81 |
| Huang | 2020 | China | All | ≥18 | General population | 7236 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Online survey | GAD | Perceived epidemics as serious | Anxiety | 0.80 | 0.38 | 1.69 |
| Huang | 2020 | China | All | ≥18 | General population | 7236 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Online survey | CES-D | Perceived epidemics as serious | Depression | 1.12 | 0.42 | 3.02 |
| Lai | 2020 | China | All | 26–40 | Health care workers | 1257 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Depression | 1.52 | 1.11 | 2.09 |
| Lai | 2020 | China | All | 26–40 | Health care workers | 1257 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Anxiety | 1.57 | 1.22 | 2.02 |
| Lai | 2020 | China | All | 26–40 | Health care workers | 1257 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | IES-R | Direct contact with suspected patients | Psychological distress | 1.60 | 1.25 | 2.04 |
| Li | 2020 | China | Female | ≥19 | Health care workers | 5317 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Relatives or friends infected | Depression | 1.39 | 1.16 | 1.66 |
| Li | 2020 | China | Female | ≥19 | Health care workers | 5317 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Relatives or friends infected | Anxiety | 1.32 | 0.94 | 1.87 |
| Lu | 2020 | China | All | ≥18 | Health care workers | 2299 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | NRS | Direct contact with suspected patients | Fear | 1.30 | 0.99 | 1.73 |
| Lu | 2020 | China | All | ≥18 | Health care workers | 2299 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | NRS | Direct contact with suspected patients | Fear | 1.41 | 1.03 | 1.93 |
| Lu | 2020 | China | All | ≥18 | Health care workers | 2299 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | HAMA | Direct contact with suspected patients | Anxiety | 1.31 | 0.89 | 1.92 |
| Lu | 2020 | China | All | ≥18 | Health care workers | 2299 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | HAMA | Direct contact with suspected patients | Anxiety | 2.06 | 1.35 | 3.15 |
| Lu | 2020 | China | All | ≥18 | Health care workers | 2299 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | HAMD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Depression | 1.39 | 0.80 | 2.43 |
| Lu | 2020 | China | All | ≥18 | Health care workers | 2299 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | HAMD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Depression | 2.02 | 1.10 | 3.69 |
| Xiao | 2020 | China | All | ≥17 | Students | 933 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Perceived epidemics as serious | Anxiety | 1.07 | 0.90 | 1.27 |
| Xiao | 2020 | China | All | ≥17 | Students | 933 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Perceived epidemics as serious | Anxiety | 1.01 | 0.90 | 1.13 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GPS-PTSD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 1.37 | 1.05 | 1.80 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Depression | 1.04 | 0.76 | 1.42 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Anxiety | 1.13 | 0.80 | 1.59 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PSS | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 1.16 | 0.84 | 1.60 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GPS-PTSD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 1.12 | 0.81 | 1.55 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Depression | 1.36 | 0.95 | 1.96 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Anxiety | 1.09 | 0.74 | 1.61 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PSS | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 0.74 | 0.51 | 1.08 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GPS-PTSD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 1.20 | 0.86 | 1.67 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Depression | 0.71 | 0.48 | 1.05 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Anxiety | 0.96 | 0.64 | 1.44 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PSS | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 0.75 | 0.51 | 1.11 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GPS-PTSD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 1.75 | 1.03 | 2.97 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Depression | 0.98 | 0.53 | 1.82 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Anxiety | 1.05 | 0.53 | 2.08 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PSS | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 1.18 | 0.66 | 2.11 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GPS-PTSD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 1.54 | 1.10 | 2.16 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Depression | 1.39 | 0.95 | 2.03 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Anxiety | 1.18 | 0.78 | 1.77 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PSS | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 1.93 | 1.30 | 2.85 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GPS-PTSD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 1.59 | 1.21 | 2.09 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Depression | 1.38 | 1.00 | 1.90 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Anxiety | 1.19 | 0.85 | 1.67 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PSS | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 1.66 | 1.19 | 2.32 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GPS-PTSD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 1.23 | 0.93 | 1.62 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Depression | 1.54 | 1.11 | 2.14 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Anxiety | 1.14 | 0.81 | 1.62 |
| Rossi | 2020 | Italy | All | >18 | Health care workers | 1379 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PSS | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 1.01 | 0.73 | 1.41 |
| Shacham | 2020 | Israel | All | 24–74 | Health care workers | 338 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Online survey | K6 | Direct contact with suspected patients | Psychological distress | 0.91 | 0.64 | 1.28 |
| Shacham | 2020 | Israel | All | 24–74 | Health care workers | 338 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Online survey | K6 | Direct contact with suspected patients | Psychological distress | 2.11 | 1.24 | 3.60 |
| Abdessater | 2020 | French | All | 29.5 | Health care workers | 275 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Posttraumatic stress | 1.85 | 0.98 | 3.59 |
| Yang | 2020 | South Korea | All | 20–50 | Health care workers | 65 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Relatives or friends infected | Depression | 1.52 | 0.26 | 20.90 |
| Yang | 2020 | South Korea | All | 20–50 | Health care workers | 65 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Relatives or friends infected | Anxiety | 0.68 | 0.12 | 9.19 |
| Ying | 2020 | China | All | 37 | General population | 285 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Direct contact with suspected patients | Depression | 1.04 | 0.77 | 1.42 |
| Ying | 2020 | China | All | 37 | General population | 406 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Direct contact with suspected patients | Anxiety | 1.41 | 1.05 | 1.89 |
| Ying | 2020 | China | All | 37 | General population | 47 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Relatives or friends infected | Depression | 1.20 | 0.68 | 2.07 |
| Ying | 2020 | China | All | 37 | General population | 70 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Relatives or friends infected | Anxiety | 1.43 | 0.84 | 2.42 |
| Ying | 2020 | China | All | 37 | General population | 112 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Perceived epidemics as serious | Depression | 0.89 | 0.51 | 1.52 |
| Ying | 2020 | China | All | 37 | General population | 112 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Perceived epidemics as serious | Anxiety | 1.15 | 0.68 | 1.94 |
| Ying | 2020 | China | All | 37 | General population | 212 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | PHQ | Perceived epidemics as serious | Depression | 1.54 | 1.01 | 2.35 |
| Ying | 2020 | China | All | 37 | General population | 212 | Cross-section study | COVID-19 | Questionnaire | GAD | Perceived epidemics as serious | Anxiety | 1.95 | 1.28 | 2.96 |
LL, lower limit; UL, upper limit; GHQ, General Health Questionnaire; PHQ, Patient Health Questionnaire; GAD, Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale; STAI, State Trait Anxiety Inventory; PTSD, posttraumatic stress disorder; IES-R, Impact of Event Scale–Revised; BSRS, five-item Brief Symptom Rating Scale; NRS, Numeric Rating Scale; HAMA, Hamilton Anxiety Scale; HAMD, Hamilton Depression Scale; GPS, Global Psychotrauma Scale; PSS, Perceived Stress Scale; K6, Kessler's K6.