TABLE 4.

Different strategies for developing cell adhesion surfaces.

Techniques	Production methods	Advantages	Disadvantages
Self- assembled monolayers	Adsorption of an active chemical onto a solid substrate in a diluted solution results in the formation of ordered molecular structures	Greater hierarchy and orientation	Unique and especially treated solid surface is required
Polymer brush	The macromolecular structure is composed of polymer chains including one end securely inserted on a curved surface or plane	Significantly enhanced the substrate’s performance, displaying varied characteristics when ambient circumstances changed	Process complexity and the potential for material loss
Layer-by-layer assembly	Intermittent rinse steps after each successive deposition of interacting species on a substrate	Controlled layered structures, economical, fast, and easy methods	Rely upon centrifugation, require challenging scaling, and poor throughput assembling
Photolithography	Using a variety of energy resources to imprint patterns on a substrate surface, including electron beam, laser, as well as ultraviolet light	High accuracy	Sophisticated operation, expensive machinery
Electrospun fibers	Static electricity attracts the polymeric mixture or melts to the material membrane under high-voltage bias.	High level of orientation control precision and porous fiber structure	Issue of high pressure, susceptible to mechanical deformation
Spin coating	Deposition, rotation, rotation, and evaporation are the fundamental steps	Low pollution, high-performance costs, energy efficiency, and no coupling of process variables	Low rate of material usage, ongoing waste
3D bio-printing	The 3D layered polymeric structure is built from the ground up and printed with solvent biological materials, whereas the 2D patterned polymer layer is surface customized using computer-aided imaging methods.	High speed and accuracy	Poor cell survival rate, shear force