TABLE 7.
Doping and its advantages in BTE.
| Scaffold material | Dopant | Positive effect on bone tissue regeneration | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Single-doped scaffolds | |||
| Hydroxyapatite | La | La3+ stimulated macrophage proliferation and activity by activating the Wnt/-catenin signaling pathway, improving osteogenic proliferation and differentiation. La-HA/CS scaffolds demonstrated osteoinduction as well as biodegradation capabilities. | Yin et al. (2019) |
| Mesoporous calcium silicate | Gradual deterioration of scaffolds released La3+ ions stimulating the TGF-β signaling pathway, which in turn encouraged the rBMSC proliferation along with osteogenic differentiation. | Peng et al. (2019) | |
| Whitlockite | Ce | The inclusion of Ce3+ to whitlockite decreased its crystallinity, activating the SMAD signalling system, increasing osteogenic activity, upregulating the expression of the osteogenic genes, and accelerating bone repair. | Hu et al. (2019) |
| Mesoporous calcium silicate | Eu | The luminescent Eu-mesoporous calcium silicate scaffolds could be utilized to mark and identify in- vitro cultured cells and nascent bone growth in-vivo. Eu3+ can promote bone regrowth as well as enhance osteoporotic development. | Wu et al. (2016) |
| Bioglass | Gd | Through the Akt/GSK3beta mechanism, Gd3+ increased the development of hBMSCs and accelerated the process of bone induction. | Zhu et al. (2019) |
| Bioglass | Ho | Reduced rapid cation leaching as well as stabilized dissolution of glass | Delpino et al. (2021) |
| Co-doped scaffolds | |||
| Hydroxyapatite | Yb/Er | When exposed to a 980 nm infrared laser, Yb/Er-hydroxyapatite nanorods displayed significant fluorescence intensity as well as light stability, were able to track the site of the BMP-2 protein translocation, as well as were biocompatible and capable of osteogenesis. | Liu et al. (2019) |
| Sm/Eu | It encourages hASC growth and possesses luminous properties. | Alicka et al. (2019) | |
| La/Pr | Compared to single and stoichiometric hydroxyapatite, co-substitutions showed higher bioactivity, better cell viability, and higher antibacterial efficacy. | Chandran and Am, (2021) | |
| Fluorapatite | Yb/Ho | The doping ratio of Yb3+ and Ho3+ was changed to increase the luminous efficacy of up-conversion. Dextran-modified water-soluble fluorapatite nanoparticles were also used for biological imaging and cell labelling. | Li and Chen, (2016) |