Table 2.
Structural proteins as targets for SARS-CoV-2 for the treatment of COVID-19.
| Target/Drug | Findings | Ref |
|---|---|---|
| Spike | ||
| Drugs & mAbs | ||
| Hesperidin | High binding affinity against SARS-CoV-2 S | [78] |
| CR3022 mAb | Binding affinity for both SARS-CoV/SARS-CoV-2 S | [80] |
| 47D11 mAb | Neutralization of SARS-CoV/SARS-CoV-2 in Vero cells | [81] |
| S309 | Targeting of highly conservative S epitope | [82] |
| VIR-7381 (Sotrovimab) | Improved half-life of S309, phase II/III trial in progress | [83] |
| LY-CoV55 (Bamlavinimab) | High binding affinity to SARS-CoV-2 S RBD | [84] |
| Good safety and tolerability in phase I | [85] | |
| Lower severity of COVID-19 compared to placebo in phase II | [86] | |
| LY-CoV016 (Etesimivab) | No significant improvement, phase III discontinued | [89] |
| LY-CoV555 + LY-CoV106 | EUA by the FDA for mild-to-moderate COVID-19 | [90] |
| REGN10987 + REGN10933 | Targeting of SARS-CoV-2 S epitopes | [91] |
| Decreased lung titers in hamsters, reduced viral load in macaques | [92] | |
| Good safety profile, reduced viral load in phase II/III | [93] | |
| — | Prevention of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 in phase III | [94] |
| FDA authorization for use in adult and pediatric COVID-19 patients | [95] | |
| Vaccines | ||
| NVX-CoV2373(Rec-S) | Protection against SARS-CoV-2 in macaques | [98] |
| >90% vaccine efficacy in Phase III | [99] | |
| Conditional marketing authorization granted in the EU and the UK | [100] | |
| Ad5-S nb2 | Protection against SARS-CoV-2 in macaques | [101] |
| >90% vaccine efficacy in clinical trials | [102] | |
| Emergency use authorization in China | [103] | |
| ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 | Protection against SARS-CoV-2 in macaques | [104] |
| 62.1–90% vaccine efficacy in clinical trials | [105] | |
| Emergency use authorization in the UK | [106] | |
| rAd26-S/rAd5-S | Good safety, robust immunogenicity in animal models | [107] |
| Good safety and tolerability in Phase I/II | [108] | |
| 91.6% vaccine efficacy in Phase III | [109] | |
| Emergency use authorization in Russia in July 2020 | [110] | |
| Ad26.CoV2.S | Protection against SARS-CoV-2 in macaques | [111] |
| Strong immunogenicity of clinical trials | [112] | |
| Emergency use authorization by the FDA | [113] | |
| DNA-S | Protection against SARS-CoV-2 in macaques | [114] |
| DNA INO-4800 | Safety and tolerability, robust immunogenicity in phase I/II | [115] |
| Durable immune responses in phase I | [116] | |
| LNP mRNA-1273 | Protection against SARS-CoV-2 in mice | [117] |
| Protection against SARS-CoV-2 in primates | [118] | |
| Phase I: SARS-CoV-2 specific robust immune responses | [119,120] | |
| Phase III: 94.1% vaccine efficacy | [121] | |
| Vaccine approval in the USA, UK, and Europe | [122] | |
| LNP RNA BNT162b1/BNT162b2 | Protection against SARS-CoV-2 in macaques | [123] |
| LNP RNA BNT162b2 | Phase I/II: Good safety and immunogenicity | [124,125] |
| Phase III: 95% vaccine efficacy | [126] | |
| Vaccine approval in the USA, UK and Europe | [127] | |
| Envelope | ||
| Amantadine | Potential target for SARS-CoV-2 inhibition | [128] |
| Gliclazide | Potential targets for COVID-19 therapy | [129] |
| Memantine | Potential targets for COVID-19 therapy | [129] |
| Nucleocapsid | ||
| N epitopes | Screening of B and T cell epitopes for vaccines | [130] |
| PJ34 | Inhibition of HCoV OC43 replication | [131] |
| P3 | Antiviral activity against MERS-CoV | [132] |
| Membrane | ||
| M epitopes | Targets for vaccines and T cell therapy | [133] |
Ad, adenovirus; Ch-VSV, chimeric vesicular stomatitis virus with SARS-CoV-2 spike protein; LNP, lipid nanoparticle; mAb, monoclonal antibody; MVA, modified vaccinia virus Ankara; NDV, Newcastle disease virus; P3, 5-benzyloxygramine inhibitor; PJ34, N protein inhibitor.