Table 4. Parameter estimates of N-mixture models to determine the relative abundance of sloth bears in Sanjay Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh, India, during 2016–2017.

Model description	β estimates	SE (Standard error)	P value
Poisson
Intercept λ(.)	0.95	0.25	0.0001 (<0.005)
λ(mixed)	0.33	0.10	0.001 (<0.005)
λ(human_CR)	0.27	0.08	0.0005 (<0.005)
λ(vildist)	0.25	0.11	0.02 (<0.05)
λ(sal.forest)	0.21	0.10	0.04 (<0.05)
λ(Agricultural.land)	−0.10	0.13	0.47 (>0.05)
NB
Intercept λ(.)	2.38	0.35	1.54e−11 (<0.005)
λ(mixed)	0.28	0.13	0.03 (<0.05)
λ(sal.forest)	0.25	0.15	0.09 (>0.05)
λ(human_CR)	0.24	0.12	0.04 (<0.05)
λ(vildist)	0.23	0.14	0.09 (>0.05)
λ(Agricultural.land)	−0.21	0.16	0.19 (>0.05)
λ(Scrubland)	0.14	0.18	0.45 (>0.05)
λ(Water.body)	−0.07	0.17	0.66 (>0.05)
ZIP
Intercept λ(.)	1.40	0.38	0.0002 (<0.005)
λ(mixed)	0.31	0.11	0.004 (<0.005)
λ(sal.forest)	0.31	0.14	0.02 (<0.05)
λ(human_CR)	0.27	0.07	0.0002 (<0.005)
λ(vildist)	0.26	0.10	0.01 (<0.05)
λ(Agricultural.land)	−0.14	0.14	0.33 (>0.05)

Note:

Estimates were derived from the Poisson, negative binomial (NB), and zero-inflated Poisson (ZIP) distributions for the mean site abundance (Lambda, λ) of sloth bears; Covariates considered: mixed- area of mixed forest, sal.forest–area of sal forest, human_CR–photographic capture rate of humans, vildist–distance to the nearest village, Agricultural.land–area of agricultural land, Scrubland- area of scrubland and, Water.body–area of water body.