Table 1. Main instruments for cognitive assessment in AD.
| Type of instrument | Main tests and normative studies |
|---|---|
| Screening tests | |
| Brief tests | Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) ( 39 ),( 40 , Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) ( 41 ),( 42 , Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument - Short Version (CASI-S) ( 43 ),( 44 , Brief Cognitive Screening Battery (BBRC) ( 45 ),( 46 |
| Multi-functional batteries | Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination - revised version (ACE-R) ( 47 ),( 48 , Cambridge Cognitive Examination (CAMCOG) ( 49 )-( 51 , Alzheimer’s Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive Subscale (ADAS-COG) ( 52 ),( 53 , Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer’s Disease (CERAD) ( 54 ),( 55 , Mattis Dementia Rating Scale (MDRS) ( 56 ),( 57 |
| Evaluation of single cognitive domains | |
| Verbal episodic memory | Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) ( 58 ),( 59 , CERAD Battery Word List Learning Subtest |
| Nonverbal memory | Subtest “figure recognition” (BBRC), Subtest “geometric figure recall” (CERAD Battery), Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure 60 ),( 61 |
| Language | Verbal Fluency Test (phonemic and semantic) ( 62 ),( 63 , Boston Naming Test (BNT) ( 64 ),( 65 |
| Attention control and executive function | Digit Span Task in forward and inverse order 66 ),( 67 , Clock Drawing Test 68 ),( 69 , Verbal Fluency Test |
| Visual-spatial / visual-constructive abilities | CERAD / MoCA Figure Copy Subtest, Clock Drawing Test |
| Functional assessment | |
| Instrumental activities of daily living | Functional Activities Questionnaire (FAQ) ( 70 ),( 71 , Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE) ( 72 ),( 73 , Direct Assessment of Functional Status-Revised (DAFS-R) ( 74 ),( 75 , Disability Assessment for Dementia (DAD) ( 76 ),( 77 , Activities of Daily Living Questionnaire (ADLQ) ( 78 ),( 79 , Bayer Activities of Daily Living Scale (B-ADL) ( 80 ),( 81 , AD8 Dementia Screening Interview 82 |
| Basic activities of daily living | Katz scale 83 ),( 84 , Functional Activities Questionnaire (FAQ) ( 70 ),( 72 |
| Dementia staging | Clinical Dementia Rating scale (CDR) ( 85 ),( 86 |
Note: The global CDR scores (CDR-GS: 0, 0.5, 1, 2, or 3) have the limitation of being based on the scores of the item Memory, considering the other items as secondary, and thus underestimating relevant information from instrumental activities that may be primarily and early affected.