Table 1.

Treatments that induce cellular senescence in PCa with indicated mechanisms

Therapy/treatment	Dose	Model system	Mechanism	References
Chemotherapy
Docetaxel	5 nM	LNCaP	Anti-microtubule agent	[116]
Doxorubicin	25 nM	DU145/LNCaP	Anthracyclines, DNA damage	[116]
Mitoxantrone		BPH-1, RWPE-1, and PC3	Anthracyclines, DNA damage, p16INK4a, p21WAF1/CIP1	[32]
5-azacytidine	0.375 µM/75 µM	DU145/LNCaP	Antimetabolite, inhibition of DNA methyltransferase	[116]
Diaziquone	10 µM	DU145, LNCaP, PC3	DNA alkylation, p27Kip1	[115, 125]
Bithionol	10 µM	DU145, LNCaP	unknown	[115]
Dichlorophene	10 µM	DU145, LNCaP	unknown	[115]
Pyrithione	10 µM	DU145, LNCaP	Zn2+ ionophore, oxidative stress, ERK	[115]
Radiotherapy
Gamma radiation	2–10 Gy	Primary prostate epithelial cells	DNA damage response	[52]
Gamma radiation	4 and 10 Gy	DU145, LNCaP, 22Rv1	DNA damage response	[56, 58]
X radiation	2, 4 and 8 Gy	PC3	P53, p21 WAF1/CIP1, p16INK4a, p15INK4b	[55]
AR targeted therapy
ADT		LNCaP, LAPC-4, LuCaP xenograft, PCa patient samples	p27Kip1, C/EBP β, oxidative stress, p16INK4a	[8, 67, 68]
AR agonist
Dihydrotestosterone	10 nM	PC3, LNCaP, C4-2 PCa patient samples	p16INK4a, p21WAF1/CIP1, Cyclin D1, pRb,	[86, 184]
Methyltrienolone	1 nM	PC3, LNCaP, C4-2 PCa patient samples	p16INK4a, p21WAF1/CIP1, p27Kip1, Cyclin D1, E2F1, pRb, Src, AKT	[86, 90]
AR antagonists
Bicalutamide	0.5–100 µM	LNCaP, CWR22PC	p16INK4a, p27Kip1	[68, 92]
Enzalutamide	10 µM	LNCaP, C4-2, LNCaP and C4-2 xenograft	p16INK4a	[88, 94, 185]
Darolutamide	10 µM	LNCaP, C4-2	p16INK4a	[94]
Atraric acid	1- 30 µM	LNCaP, C4-2 xenograft PCa patient samples	p16INK4a, pRb, Src, AKT	[91, 101]
20-aminosteroid (C18)	10 µM	LNCaP	Unknown	[95]
Anthranilic acid ester (C28)	30 µM	LNCaP	Unknown	[102]