Table 1.
Prevalence of clinically significant psychological distress in 2019 and April and September 2020, and changes in prevalence over time (n = 10 918).
| Survey wave | 2019a | April 2020 | September 2020 | Change 2019 – April 2020 | Change April – September 2020 | Change 2019 – September 2020 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Demographic characteristic | n | % (95% CI) | % (95% CI) | % (95% CI) | % (95% CI) | % (95% CI) | % (95% CI) |
| Overall | 10918 | 20.8 (19.4, 22.2) | 29.5 (28.0, 31.0) | 20.8 (19.5, 22.1) | 8.7⁎⁎⁎ (6.9, 10.4) | -8.7⁎⁎⁎ (-10.2, -7.2) | 0.0 (-2.0, 1.9) |
| Sex | |||||||
| Male | 4538 | 16.7 (14.6, 18.7) | 21.1 (19.0, 23.3) | 16.0 (14.0, 17.9) | 4.5⁎⁎⁎ (2.0, 7.0) | -5.2⁎⁎⁎ (-7.2, -3.2) | -0.7 (-2.9, 1.5) |
| Female | 6380 | 24.5 (22.5, 26.4) | 36.8 (34.8, 38.9) | 25.0 (23.3, 26.8) | 12.4⁎⁎⁎ (9.9,14.9) | -11.8⁎⁎⁎ (-14.1, -9.5) | 0.5 (-1.8, 2.9) |
| Age group, y | |||||||
| 18 – 34 | 1260 | 25.4 (21.6, 29.2) | 39.9 (35.5, 44.4) | 23.7 (19.8, 27.6) | 14.5⁎⁎⁎ (9.6,19.4) | -16.2⁎⁎⁎ (-20.8,-11.6) | -1.7 (-5.9, 2.5) |
| 35 – 49 | 2449 | 24.3 (21.5, 27.2) | 32.6 (29.7, 35.5) | 23.9 (21.2, 26.5) | 8.3⁎⁎⁎ (4.8, 11.8) | -8.8⁎⁎⁎ (-12.0, -5.5) | -0.4 (-4.0, 3.1) |
| 50 – 64 | 3762 | 21.5 (19.2, 23.7) | 27.8 (25.5, 30.0) | 21.1 (19.1, 23.0) | 6.3⁎⁎⁎ (3.4, 9.2) | -6.7⁎⁎⁎ (-8.9, -4.5) | -0.4 (-3.0, 2.2) |
| 65+ | 3447 | 12.7 (10.3, 15.1) | 19.4 (17.1, 21.8) | 14.9 (12.9, 16.9) | 6.8⁎⁎⁎ (3.7, 9.8) | -4.5⁎⁎⁎ (-6.9, -2.2) | 2.2 (-0.8, 5.2) |
| Race/ethnicity | |||||||
| White | 9987 | 20.8 (19.4, 22.3) | 29.4 (27.9, 31.0) | 20.9 (19.6, 22.2) | 8.6⁎⁎⁎ (6.7, 10.4) | -8.6⁎⁎⁎ (-10.2, -6.9) | 0.0 (-1.6, 1.7) |
| Non-white | 931 | 20.4 (14.6, 26.3) | 29.8 (23.4, 36.3) | 19.4 (13.7, 25.2) | 9.4⁎ (2.0, 16.8) | -10.4⁎⁎⁎ (-14.6, -6.2) | -1.0 (-7.7, 5.6) |
| Household incomeb | |||||||
| ≤ £15,000 | 3384 | 22.9 (20.2, 25.6) | 31.2 (28.5, 33.8) | 24.0 (21.6, 26.5) | 8.3⁎⁎⁎ (5.0 11.6) | -7.2⁎⁎⁎ (-9.9, -4.4) | 1.1 (-2.1, 4.4) |
| £15,000 - £49,999 | 3451 | 20.7 (18.1, 23.3) | 27.2 (24.5, 29.8) | 19.5 (17.3, 21.8) | 6.4⁎⁎⁎ (3.1, 9.7) | -7.6⁎⁎⁎ (-10.5, -4.8) | -1.2 (-4.2, 1.8) |
| £50,000+ | 3599 | 19.0 (17.0, 21.0) | 29.6 (27.1, 32.0) | 18.8 (16.7, 20.9) | 10.5⁎⁎⁎ (7.0,13.1) | -10.7⁎⁎⁎ (-13.1, -8.4) | -0.2 (-2.4, 2.0) |
| Living with partner | |||||||
| Cohabiting | 8111 | 17.1 (15.7, 18.4) | 26.3 (24.7, 27.8) | 17.3 (16.0, 18.6) | 9.2⁎⁎⁎ (7.3, 11.0) | -8.9⁎⁎⁎ (-10.6, -7.3) | 0.2 (-1.3, 1.8) |
| Not cohabiting | 2807 | 27.8 (24.6, 30.9) | 35.5 (32.5, 38.6) | 27.2 (24.4, 30.1) | 7.7⁎⁎⁎ (4.0, 11.5) | -8.3⁎⁎, ⁎⁎⁎ (-11.4, -5.2) | -0.5 (-4.2, 3.1) |
Notes: Those with a GHQ-12 symptom score of 4 or greater were classified as experiencing clinically significant distress levels. All estimates are adjusted for covariates and derived from logistic regression analysis with cluster-robust standard errors followed by the Stata margins postestimation command.
a
Collection of 2019 data was distributed approximately evenly across all 12 months of the year as part of waves 10 and 11 of the UKHLS.
b
Net annual income. A missing data dummy variable was included for participants who did not provide income data (4.4% of the sample).
⁎
p < .05.
⁎⁎
p < .01.
⁎⁎⁎
p < .001.