Figure 1.

Primary mechanisms of erythrocyte-mediated immunity: (1) NKEF in erythrocyte cytoplasm enhances the killing ability of NK-cells; (2) erythrocytes with CD47 unbound anti-CD47 mAb show apoptosis; (3) CD58 on the erythrocyte membrane can interact with CD2 on the lymphocyte membrane, thus inducing cytokine production by T lymphocytes and promoting the proliferation and differentiation of B lymphocytes; (4) erythrocytes complete IAC through CR1 binding to C3b; (5) erythrocytes in healthy humans can promote T-lymphocyte proliferation; (6) antioxidants contained in erythrocytes increase phagocytosis; (7) signal regulatory protein α interacts with CD47 to also promote phagocytosis of apoptotic cells [23]; and (8) erythrocytes expressed DARC can bind and scavenge cytokines released by tumor cells.