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The role of EPCs in cancer. (1) Tumors promote the expansion of EPCs and (2) tumors inhibit the maturation and differentiation of EPCs. Early CD45+ EPCs use (a) TGF-β, (b) ROS, (c) IL-10 and (d) PD-L1 regulates immune responses. More mature CD45− EPCs regulate cancer progression through (e) secretion of Artemin.
