TABLE 1.
Quartiles | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Characteristic | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | P-trend |
Overall plant-based diet index | |||||
Participants, n | 211 | 229 | 211 | 240 | |
Mean ± SEM | 51.1 ± 0.25 | 58.6 ± 0.12 | 63.8 ± 0.10 | 71.1 ± 0.24 | |
Age, years | 54.8 ± 0.68 | 55.5 ± 0.62 | 54.7 ± 0.64 | 55.9 ± 0.63 | 0.41 |
Sex, % female | 47.4 | 42.4 | 52.6 | 46.3 | 0.66 |
Years lived in the US, years | 29.1 ± 0.69 | 26.6 ± 0.62 | 26.2 ± 0.64 | 26.3 ± 0.63 | 0.004 |
Birth country | — | — | — | — | 0.09 |
India | 74.4 | 83.8 | 87.7 | 88.3 | |
Pakistan | 9 | 5.24 | 0.95 | 2.5 | |
Bangladesh | 1.42 | 0.87 | 0 | 0 | |
Nepal | 0.47 | 0 | 0.47 | 0.83 | |
Sri Lanka | 2.84 | 0.87 | 0.47 | 0 | |
Other | 11.9 | 9.22 | 10.41 | 8.37 | |
Bachelor's degree or more, % | 84.4 | 86.0 | 88.6 | 91.7 | 0.01 |
Questionnaire in Hindi or Urdu, % | 4.27 | 5.24 | 4.74 | 3.33 | 0.56 |
Family income >$75,000, % | 74.5 | 73.4 | 75.6 | 70.9 | 0.49 |
Sum of cultural traditions measures2 | 15.8 ± 0.45 | 14.1 ± 0.41 | 12.9 ± 0.43 | 13.3 ± 0.42 | <0.0001 |
Smoking category, % | |||||
Never | 79.1 | 80.4 | 82.9 | 90.0 | 0.001 |
Former | 16.1 | 15.7 | 15.6 | 7.5 | |
Current | 4.7 | 3.9 | 1.4 | 2.5 | |
Tobacco pack-year consumption | 2.53 ± 0.42 | 1.68 ± 0.38 | 1.48 ± 0.40 | 0.50 ± 0.39 | 0.001 |
Alcohol, % with 1+ drinks/week | 43.1 | 38.0 | 26.1 | 25.0 | <0.0001 |
Physical activity, MET-min/week | 9970 ± 289 | 10113 ± 265 | 10343 ± 275 | 10159 ± 271 | 0.56 |
TV watching, min/week | 565 ± 33 | 547 ± 30 | 536 ± 31 | 558 ± 31 | 0.85 |
BMI, kg/m2 | 26.7 ± 0.29 | 26.1 ± 0.27 | 25.9 ± 0.28 | 25.4 ± 0.28 | 0.002 |
Waist circumference, cm | 93.9 ± 0.71 | 92.9 ± 0.65 | 92.4 ± 0.67 | 91.1 ± 0.66 | 0.006 |
Controlled hyperlipidemia, % | 77.2 | 78.2 | 84.7 | 77.9 | 0.53 |
Hypertension, % | 37.9 | 45.4 | 37.4 | 39.2 | 0.75 |
Diabetes categories, % | — | — | — | — | |
Normal | 60.0 | 58.8 | 62.7 | 64.6 | 0.34 |
Prediabetes | 18.1 | 20.6 | 17.7 | 15.0 | |
Diabetes | 21.9 | 20.6 | 19.6 | 20.4 | |
Family history of diabetes, % | 61.6 | 52.1 | 52.7 | 55.0 | 0.23 |
Medication use, % | |||||
Diabetes medication | 17.5 | 15.7 | 14.7 | 16.3 | 0.68 |
Hypertension medication | 31.3 | 33.6 | 26.5 | 29.6 | 0.38 |
Cholesterol-lowering medication | 32.7 | 31.0 | 25.1 | 29.2 | 0.25 |
Cardiometabolic risk factors | |||||
Triglycerides,3 mmol/L | 1.14 ± 1.01 | 1.12 ± 1.01 | 1.12 ± 1.01 | 1.15 ± 1.01 | 0.396 |
LDL-C, mmol/L | 3.05 ± 0.059 | 2.95 ± 0.054 | 2.85 ± 0.056 | 2.74 ± 0.055 | <0.0001 |
HDL-C, mmol/L | 1.32 ± 0.023 | 1.32 ± 0.021 | 1.31 ± 0.021 | 1.27 ± 0.021 | 0.099 |
Fasting glucose,3 mmol/L | 2.12 ± 1.006 | 2.10 ± 1.006 | 2.10 ± 1.006 | 2.07 ± 1.006 | 0.02 |
HbA1c, % | 6.16 ± 0.061 | 6.01 ± 0.056 | 6.08 ± 0.059 | 5.98 ± 0.057 | 0.08 |
β-cell function3,4 | 1.32 ± 1.03 | 1.37 ± 1.03 | 1.39 ± 1.032 | 1.46 ± 1.03 | 0.04 |
HOMA-IR4 | 1.58 ± 1.02 | 1.48 ± 1.02 | 1.47 ± 1.02 | 1.48 ± 1.02 | 0.06 |
Subcutaneous fat area, cm2 | 245 ± 6.89 | 232 ± 6.42 | 235 ± 6.69 | 242 ± 6.49 | 0.80 |
Visceral fat area, cm2 | 142 ± 3.79 | 133 ± 3.54 | 131 ± 3.60 | 130 ± 3.54 | 0.02 |
Pericardial fat volume, cm3 | 61.5 ± 1.98 | 59.1 ± 1.84 | 58.0 ± 1.89 | 54.3 ± 1.86 | 0.01 |
Hepatic fat attenuation, HU | 53.4 ± 0.738 | 55.0 ± 0.69 | 56.4 ± 0.703 | 56.2 ± 0.69 | 0.005 |
C-reactive protein,3 mg/L | 1.18 ± 1.03 | 1.15 ± 1.03 | 1.13 ± 1.03 | 1.10 ± 1.03 | 0.13 |
Adiponectin, mg/dL | 54.9 ± 1.02 | 53.9 ± 1.02 | 56.1 ± 1.02 | 54.8 ± 1.02 | 0.77 |
Coronary artery calcium score | 2.24 ± 1.06 | 2.07 ± 1.06 | 2.26 ± 1.06 | 2.14 ± 1.06 | 0.80 |
Common carotid IMT, mm | 0.937 ± 1.01 | 0.93 ± 1.006 | 0.937 ± 1.01 | 0.926 ± 1.01 | 0.32 |
Internal carotid IMT, mm3 | 1.06 ± 1.01 | 1.07 ± 1.01 | 1.06 ± 1.01 | 1.05 ± 1.01 | 0.26 |
Foods, servings/d | |||||
Whole grains | 1.72 ± 0.07 | 1.88 ± 0.065 | 2.15 ± 0.07 | 2.18 ± 0.07 | <0.0001 |
Fruits | 2.00 ± 0.10 | 2.40 ± 0.09 | 2.49 ± 0.09 | 2.48 ± 0.09 | 0.001 |
Vegetables | 4.15 ± 0.14 | 4.50 ± 0.13 | 4.65 ± 0.14 | 4.79 ± 0.13 | 0.001 |
Herbs and spices | 2.37 ± 0.10 | 2.89 ± 0.09 | 3.09 ± 0.09 | 3.39 ± 0.09 | <0.0001 |
Tea and coffee | 2.13 ± 0.10 | 2.12 ± 0.09 | 2.06 ± 0.09 | 2.13 ± 0.09 | 0.91 |
Nuts | 0.647 ± 0.044 | 0.745 ± 0.04 | 0.773 ± 0.042 | 1.06 ± 0.041 | <0.0001 |
Legumes | 0.748 ± 0.049 | 1.05 ± 0.045 | 1.2 ± 0.046 | 1.64 ± 0.046 | <0.0001 |
Vegetable oils | 0.133 ± 0.015 | 0.127 ± 0.014 | 0.089 ± 0.015 | 0.124 ± 0.015 | 0.40 |
Sugar-sweetened beverages | 0.294 ± 0.034 | 0.330 ± 0.031 | 0.375 ± 0.032 | 0.358 ± 0.032 | 0.13 |
Potatoes | 0.324 ± 0.031 | 0.307 ± 0.028 | 0.427 ± 0.029 | 0.328 ± 0.029 | 0.43 |
Refined grains | 0.838 ± 0.051 | 0.786 ± 0.047 | 0.847 ± 0.049 | 1.037 ± 0.048 | 0.005 |
Deep-fried snacks | 0.433 ± 0.034 | 0.447 ± 0.032 | 0.594 ± 0.033 | 0.766 ± 0.032 | <0.0001 |
Sweets | 0.537 ± 0.042 | 0.574 ± 0.038 | 0.554 ± 0.04 | 0.648 ± 0.039 | 0.09 |
Coconut | 0.051 ± 0.015 | 0.07 ± 0.013 | 0.084 ± 0.014 | 0.142 ± 0.014 | <0.0001 |
Dairy | 3.78 ± 0.13 | 3.62 ± 0.12 | 3.47 ± 0.12 | 3.25 ± 0.12 | 0.002 |
Animal fat | 0.603 ± 0.045 | 0.457 ± 0.041 | 0.434 ± 0.042 | 0.263 ± 0.042 | <0.0001 |
Meat | 0.630 ± 0.029 | 0.396 ± 0.027 | 0.194 ± 0.028 | 0.001 ± 0.027 | <0.0001 |
Egg | 0.418 ± 0.025 | 0.307 ± 0.023 | 0.186 ± 0.024 | 0.078 ± 0.023 | <0.0001 |
Fish and seafood | 0.259 ± 0.015 | 0.16 ± 0.014 | 0.089 ± 0.015 | 0.019 ± 0.014 | <0.0001 |
Miscellaneous animal foods | 0.285 ± 0.016 | 0.225 ± 0.015 | 0.166 ± 0.015 | 0.108 ± 0.015 | <0.0001 |
Milk desserts | 0.193 ± 0.013 | 0.164 ± 0.012 | 0.158 ± 0.012 | 0.134 ± 0.012 | 0.001 |
Healthy plant–based diet index | |||||
Participants, n | 217 | 244 | 218 | 212 | |
Mean ± SEM | 50.1 ± 0.29 | 59.2 ± 0.13 | 65.4 ± 0.11 | 73.2 ± 0.27 | |
Age, years | 53.0 ± 0.64 | 54.2 ± 0.59 | 56.0 ± 0.62 | 58.0 ± 0.64 | <0.0001 |
Sex % female | 28.6 | 46.7 | 55.1 | 58.0 | <0.0001 |
Years lived in the US, years | 29.1 ± 0.67 | 26.7 ± 0.60 | 25.9 ± 0.63 | 26.4 ± 0.64 | 0.002 |
Birth country | — | — | — | — | 0.0003 |
India | 74.7 | 82.4 | 88.1 | 90.1 | |
Pakistan | 7.83 | 5.74 | 2.29 | 1.42 | |
Bangladesh | 0.46 | 0.82 | 0.92 | 0 | |
Nepal | 0 | 0.82 | 0.46 | 0.47 | |
Sri Lanka | 1.84 | 2.46 | 2.29 | 5.66 | |
Other | 15.2 | 9.43 | 7.8 | 7.1 | |
Bachelor's degree or more, % | 85.3 | 88.5 | 89.0 | 88.2 | 0.35 |
Questionnaire in Hindi or Urdu, % | 3.69 | 6.56 | 4.59 | 2.36 | 0.33 |
Family income >$75,000, % | 72.1 | 74.0 | 77.6 | 70.2 | 0.90 |
Sum of cultural traditions measures2 | 14.7 ± 0.44 | 14.1 ± 0.40 | 14.0 ± 0.42 | 13.2 ± 0.44 | 0.03 |
Smoking category, % | |||||
Never | 71.0 | 84.0 | 86.7 | 91.5 | <0.0001 |
Former | 21.2 | 15.2 | 11.5 | 6.1 | |
Current | 7.8 | 0.8 | 1.8 | 2.4 | |
Tobacco pack-year consumption | 3.210 ± 0.41 | 1.33 ± 0.37 | 1.04 ± 0.39 | 0.52 ± 0.40 | <0.0001 |
Alcohol, % with 1+ drinks/week | 45.6 | 35.7 | 29.4 | 20.3 | <0.0001 |
Physical activity, MET-min/week | 10102 ± 282 | 9934 ± 256 | 10013 ± 271 | 10570 ± 279 | 0.25 |
TV watching, min/week | 640 ± 32 | 521 ± 29 | 517 ± 30 | 533 ± 31 | 0.02 |
BMI, kg/m2 | 26.5 ± 0.29 | 26.5 ± 0.26 | 25.6 ± 0.28 | 25.3 ± 0.28 | 0.002 |
Waist circumference, cm | 93.4 ± 0.69 | 93.8 ± 0.63 | 91.6 ± 0.66 | 91.1 ± 0.68 | 0.004 |
Controlled hyperlipidemia, % | 75.9 | 77.6 | 80.8 | 83.9 | 0.03 |
Hypertension, % | 37.5 | 40.9 | 36.7 | 45.3 | 0.20 |
Diabetes categories, % | |||||
Normal | 55.6 | 62.6 | 66.5 | 61.4 | 0.38 |
Prediabetes | 23.6 | 15.6 | 16.1 | 16.2 | |
Diabetes | 20.8 | 21.8 | 17.4 | 22.4 | |
Family history of diabetes, % | 58.4 | 53.6 | 54.8 | 54.5 | 0.51 |
Medication use, % | |||||
Diabetes medication | 13.8 | 17.2 | 14.7 | 18.4 | 0.33 |
Hypertension medication | 27.2 | 30.7 | 28.9 | 34.4 | 0.16 |
Cholesterol-lowering medication | 27.2 | 27.5 | 27.5 | 36.3 | 0.50 |
Cardiometabolic risk factors | |||||
Triglycerides,3 mmol/L | 1.14 ± 1.01 | 1.12 ± 1.01 | 1.11 ± 1.01 | 1.16 ± 1.01 | 0.72 |
LDL-C, mmol/L | 3.02 ± 0.058 | 2.90 ± 0.052 | 2.87 ± 0.055 | 2.78 ± 0.057 | 0.005 |
HDL-C, mmol/L | 1.30 ± 0.022 | 1.30 ± 0.02 | 1.32 ± 0.021 | 1.30 ± 0.022 | 0.66 |
Fasting glucose,3 mmol/L | 2.11 ± 1.01 | 2.10 ± 1.006 | 2.08 ± 1.01 | 2.09 ± 1.01 | 0.28 |
HbA1c, % | 6.12 ± 0.06 | 6.11 ± 0.054 | 6.00 ± 0.057 | 5.99 ± 0.059 | 0.09 |
β-cell function3,4 | 1.32 ± 1.03 | 1.41 ± 1.03 | 1.44 ± 1.03 | 1.39 ± 1.03 | 0.23 |
HOMA-IR4 | 1.57 ± 1.02 | 1.56 ± 1.02 | 1.43 ± 1.02 | 1.43 ± 1.02 | <0.0001 |
Subcutaneous fat area, cm2 | 244 ± 6.71 | 247 ± 6.17 | 239 ± 6.58 | 224 ± 6.66 | 0.04 |
Visceral fat area, cm2 | 141 ± 3.67 | 141 ± 3.34 | 127 ± 3.56 | 125 ± 3.67 | <0.0001 |
Pericardial fat volume, cm3 | 63.1 ± 1.94 | 59.4 ± 1.75 | 55.5 ± 1.86 | 54.2 ± 1.92 | 0.001 |
Hepatic fat attenuation, HU | 53.4 ± 0.723 | 54.7 ± 0.652 | 56.1 ± 0.696 | 57.0 ± 0.712 | <0.0001 |
C-reactive protein,3 mg/L | 1.21 ± 1.03 | 1.18 ± 1.03 | 1.08 ± 1.03 | 1.09 ± 1.03 | 0.006 |
Adiponectin, mg/dL | 53.8 ± 1.02 | 53.4 ± 1.02 | 55.7 ± 1.02 | 56.9 ± 1.02 | 0.02 |
Coronary artery calcium score | 2.21 ± 1.06 | 2.13 ± 1.06 | 2.27 ± 1.06 | 2.10 ± 1.06 | 0.71 |
Common carotid IMT, mm | 0.939 ± 1.01 | 0.938 ± 1.01 | 0.93 ± 1.01 | 0.921 ± 1.01 | 0.03 |
Internal carotid IMT, mm3 | 1.08 ± 1.01 | 1.062 ± 1.01 | 1.058 ± 1.01 | 1.041 ± 1.01 | 0.006 |
Foods, servings/d | |||||
Whole grains | 1.50 ± 0.067 | 1.97 ± 0.06 | 2.10 ± 0.06 | 2.38 ± 0.07 | <0.0001 |
Fruits | 1.90 ± 0.094 | 2.17 ± 0.085 | 2.51 ± 0.09 | 2.84 ± 0.093 | <0.0001 |
Vegetables | 3.78 ± 0.136 | 4.44 ± 0.123 | 4.67 ± 0.131 | 5.25 ± 0.135 | <0.0001 |
Herbs and spices | 2.45 ± 0.093 | 3.01 ± 0.085 | 3.06 ± 0.090 | 3.26 ± 0.092 | <0.0001 |
Tea and coffee | 2.01 ± 0.094 | 2.183 ± 0.085 | 2.23 ± 0.090 | 2.00 ± 0.093 | 0.951 |
Nuts | 0.539 ± 0.042 | 0.744 ± 0.038 | 0.886 ± 0.040 | 1.09 ± 0.041 | <0.0001 |
Legumes | 0.716 ± 0.047 | 1.122 ± 0.043 | 1.353 ± 0.046 | 1.581 ± 0.047 | <0.0001 |
Sugar-sweetened beverages | 0.11 ± 0.015 | 0.106 ± 0.014 | 0.129 ± 0.015 | 0.13 ± 0.015 | 0.25 |
Potatoes | 0.503 ± 0.033 | 0.351 ± 0.03 | 0.272 ± 0.031 | 0.237 ± 0.032 | <0.0001 |
Refined grains | 0.385 ± 0.03 | 0.39 ± 0.027 | 0.312 ± 0.029 | 0.288 ± 0.03 | 0.008 |
Deep-fried snacks | 1.236 ± 0.048 | 0.926 ± 0.043 | 0.803 ± 0.046 | 0.558 ± 0.047 | <0.0001 |
Sweets | 0.610 ± 0.034 | 0.630 ± 0.031 | 0.587 ± 0.033 | 0.427 ± 0.034 | <0.0001 |
Coconut | 0.849 ± 0.039 | 0.629 ± 0.035 | 0.504 ± 0.037 | 0.338 ± 0.038 | <0.0001 |
Dairy | 0.115 ± 0.014 | 0.079 ± 0.013 | 0.117 ± 0.014 | 0.044 ± 0.014 | 0.006 |
Animal fat | 3.46 ± 0.122 | 3.42 ± 0.111 | 3.73 ± 0.118 | 3.49 ± 0.121 | 0.50 |
Meat | 0.624 ± 0.043 | 0.494 ± 0.039 | 0.357 ± 0.042 | 0.254 ± 0.043 | <0.0001 |
Egg | 0.585 ± 0.03 | 0.313 ± 0.027 | 0.195 ± 0.029 | 0.093 ± 0.03 | <0.0001 |
Fish and seafood | 0.363 ± 0.025 | 0.256 ± 0.023 | 0.195 ± 0.024 | 0.154 ± 0.025 | <0.0001 |
Miscellaneous animal foods | 0.218 ± 0.016 | 0.14 ± 0.014 | 0.094 ± 0.015 | 0.061 ± 0.015 | <0.0001 |
Milk desserts | 0.283 ± 0.016 | 0.205 ± 0.014 | 0.166 ± 0.015 | 0.119 ± 0.016 | <0.0001 |
Unhealthy plant–based diet index | |||||
Participants, n | 229 | 224 | 217 | 221 | |
Mean ± SEM | 51.9 ± 0.24 | 59.2 ± 0.10 | 63.9 ± 0.09 | 70.4 ± 0.20 | |
Age, years | 56.3 ± 0.64 | 55.6 ± 0.62 | 55.8 ± 0.64 | 53.4 ± 0.65 | 0.005 |
Sex, % female | 53.2 | 45.1 | 43.3 | 46.2 | 0.12 |
Years lived in the US, years | 28.1 ± 0.64 | 27.7 ± 0.63 | 27.0 ± 0.64 | 25.1 ± 0.65 | 0.002 |
Birth country | — | — | — | — | 0.07 |
India | 81.2 | 79.5 | 88.0 | 86.4 | |
Pakistan | 5.68 | 6.7 | 3.23 | 1.81 | |
Bangladesh | 0.44 | 0.89 | 0.46 | 0.45 | |
Nepal | 0.87 | 0.45 | 0 | 0.45 | |
Sri Lanka | 0.87 | 0.45 | 1.38 | 1.36 | |
Other | 10.9 | 12.1 | 6.90 | 9.48 | |
Bachelor's degree or more, % | 89.1 | 86.2 | 88.5 | 87.3 | 0.76 |
Questionnaire in Hindi or Urdu, % | 1.31 | 5.36 | 6.45 | 4.52 | 0.08 |
Family income >$75,000, % | 74.4 | 75.6 | 73.2 | 70.8 | 0.32 |
Sum of cultural traditions measures2 | 15.0 ± 0.43 | 14.2 ± 0.42 | 14.3 ± 0.42 | 12.4 ± 0.43 | <0.0001 |
Smoking category, % | |||||
Never | 80.8 | 82.1 | 83.4 | 86.9 | 0.05 |
Former | 14.9 | 14.7 | 12.9 | 11.8 | |
Current | 4.4 | 3.13 | 3.69 | 1.36 | |
Tobacco pack-year consumption | 1.56 ± 0.40 | 2.07 ± 0.39 | 1.15 ± 0.40 | 1.25 ± 0.41 | 0.35 |
Alcohol, % with 1+ drinks/week | 39.3 | 35.7 | 31.8 | 24.4 | 0.0006 |
Physical activity, MET-min/week | 10432 ± 273 | 10212 ± 267 | 10283 ± 273 | 9644 ± 278 | 0.07 |
TV watching, min/week | 520 ± 31 | 574 ± 30 | 555 ± 31 | 559 ± 31 | 0.48 |
BMI, kg/m2 | 26.1 ± 0.28 | 26.3 ± 0.27 | 25.9 ± 0.28 | 25.8 ± 0.29 | 0.39 |
Waist circumference, cm | 93.0 ± 0.67 | 92.7 ± 0.66 | 92.7 ± 0.67 | 91.7 ± 0.69 | 0.22 |
Controlled hyperlipidemia, % | 75.3 | 79.7 | 76.7 | 86.2 | 0.02 |
Hypertension, % | 43.7 | 39.7 | 36.9 | 39.8 | 0.32 |
Diabetes categories, % | |||||
Normal | 60.1 | 62.8 | 57.7 | 65.6 | 0.54 |
Prediabetes | 18.4 | 17.5 | 20.9 | 14.5 | |
Diabetes | 21.5 | 19.7 | 21.4 | 19.9 | |
Family history of diabetes, % | 58.3 | 55.8 | 52.7 | 54.2 | 0.32 |
Medication use, % | |||||
Diabetes medication | 17.5 | 13.0 | 17.1 | 16.7 | 0.87 |
Hypertension medication | 30.6 | 30.4 | 30.9 | 29.4 | 0.83 |
Cholesterol-lowering medication | 29.7 | 31.3 | 28.6 | 28.5 | 0.65 |
Cardiometabolic risk factors | |||||
Triglycerides,3 mmol/L | 1.12 ± 1.01 | 1.12 ± 1.01 | 1.14 ± 1.01 | 1.15 ± 1.01 | 0.14 |
LDL-C, mmol/L | 2.98 ± 0.056 | 2.87 ± 0.055 | 2.90 ± 0.056 | 2.81 ± 0.057 | 0.06 |
HDL-C, mmol/L | 1.34 ± 0.021 | 1.31 ± 0.021 | 1.28 ± 0.021 | 1.29 ± 0.022 | 0.06 |
Fasting glucose,3 mmol/L | 2.11 ± 1.01 | 2.09 ± 1.01 | 2.11 ± 1.01 | 2.07 ± 1.01 | 0.035 |
HbA1c, % | 6.11 ± 0.06 | 6.01 ± 0.06 | 6.05 ± 0.06 | 6.04 ± 0.06 | 0.47 |
β-cell function3,4 | 1.34 ± 1.03 | 1.38 ± 1.03 | 1.42 ± 1.03 | 1.42 ± 1.03 | 0.18 |
HOMA-IR4 | 1.52 ± 1.02 | 1.50 ± 1.02 | 1.50 ± 1.02 | 1.47 ± 1.02 | 0.31 |
Subcutaneous fat area, cm2 | 236 ± 6.70 | 239 ± 6.34 | 241 ± 6.57 | 239 ± 6.71 | 0.78 |
Visceral fat area, cm2 | 130 ± 3.62 | 139 ± 3.52 | 132 ± 3.60 | 133 ± 3.67 | 0.74 |
Pericardial fat volume, cm3 | 57.2 ± 1.89 | 58.6 ± 1.84 | 57.2 ± 1.88 | 59.3 ± 1.93 | 0.57 |
Hepatic fat attenuation, HU | 55.5 ± 0.706 | 55.3 ± 0.687 | 55.3 ± 0.703 | 55.1 ± 0.721 | 0.71 |
C-reactive protein,3 mg/L | 1.13 ± 1.03 | 1.16 ± 1.03 | 1.11 ± 1.03 | 1.15 ± 1.03 | 0.89 |
Adiponectin, mg/dL | 56.2 ± 1.02 | 53.2 ± 1.02 | 55.2 ± 1.02 | 54.9 ± 1.02 | 0.58 |
Coronary artery calcium score | 2.21 ± 1.06 | 2.28 ± 1.058 | 2.07 ± 1.06 | 2.13 ± 1.06 | 0.46 |
Common carotid IMT, mm | 0.925 ± 1.01 | 0.937 ± 1.01 | 0.934 ± 1.01 | 0.932 ± 1.01 | 0.46 |
Internal carotid IMT, mm3 | 1.06 ± 1.01 | 1.05 ± 1.01 | 1.06 ± 1.01 | 1.07 ± 1.01 | 0.45 |
Foods, servings/d | |||||
Whole grains | 2.10 ± 0.068 | 2.02 ± 0.066 | 1.88 ± 0.067 | 1.94 ± 0.069 | 0.06 |
Fruits | 2.71 ± 0.093 | 2.43 ± 0.09 | 2.27 ± 0.092 | 1.97 ± 0.094 | <0.0001 |
Vegetables | 5.32 ± 0.131 | 4.77 ± 0.128 | 4.24 ± 0.131 | 3.74 ± 0.133 | <0.0001 |
Herbs/spices | 3.22 ± 0.091 | 3.15 ± 0.089 | 2.90 ± 0.091 | 2.51 ± 0.093 | <0.0001 |
Tea and coffee | 2.57 ± 0.088 | 2.18 ± 0.086 | 2.12 ± 0.088 | 1.54 ± 0.09 | <0.0001 |
Nuts | 1.04 ± 0.041 | 0.882 ± 0.04 | 0.749 ± 0.041 | 0.572 ± 0.042 | <0.0001 |
Legumes | 1.15 ± 0.05 | 1.16 ± 0.049 | 1.17 ± 0.05 | 1.29 ± 0.051 | 0.09 |
Sugar-sweetened beverages | 0.141 ± 0.015 | 0.143 ± 0.014 | 0.110 ± 0.015 | 0.078 ± 0.015 | 0.002 |
Potatoes | 0.200 ± 0.032 | 0.312 ± 0.031 | 0.380 ± 0.032 | 0.479 ± 0.032 | <0.0001 |
Refined grains | 0.246 ± 0.029 | 0.346 ± 0.028 | 0.365 ± 0.029 | 0.43 ± 0.03 | <0.0001 |
Deep-fried snacks | 0.521 ± 0.046 | 0.812 ± 0.045 | 0.964 ± 0.046 | 1.25 ± 0.047 | <0.0001 |
Sweets | 0.325 ± 0.032 | 0.542 ± 0.031 | 0.646 ± 0.032 | 0.765 ± 0.033 | <0.0001 |
Coconut | 0.400 ± 0.039 | 0.629 ± 0.038 | 0.614 ± 0.039 | 0.69 ± 0.04 | <0.0001 |
Dairy | 0.028 ± 0.014 | 0.073 ± 0.013 | 0.137 ± 0.014 | 0.12 ± 0.014 | <0.0001 |
Animal fat | 4.05 ± 0.117 | 3.51 ± 0.114 | 3.38 ± 0.117 | 3.11 ± 0.119 | <0.0001 |
Meat | 0.48 ± 0.043 | 0.416 ± 0.042 | 0.449 ± 0.043 | 0.387 ± 0.044 | 0.203 |
Egg | 0.407 ± 0.031 | 0.349 ± 0.03 | 0.272 ± 0.031 | 0.147 ± 0.031 | <0.0001 |
Fish and seafood | 0.380 ± 0.024 | 0.311 ± 0.023 | 0.173 ± 0.024 | 0.093 ± 0.024 | <0.0001 |
Miscellaneous animal foods | 0.227 ± 0.015 | 0.111 ± 0.015 | 0.115 ± 0.015 | 0.055 ± 0.015 | <0.0001 |
Milk desserts | 0.224 ± 0.016 | 0.214 ± 0.015 | 0.178 ± 0.016 | 0.155 ± 0.016 | 0.001 |
Values are age, sex, and calorie-adjusted means (SEM) or percentages, calculated using linear regression for continuous variables and chi-square tests for categorical variables. Abbreviations: HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; HU, Hounsfield units; IMT, intima media thickness; MASALA, Mediators of Atherosclerosis in South Asians Living in America; MET, metabolic equivalents of task.
Higher scores indicate weaker traditional cultural beliefs.
Values were log-transformed to obtain a normal distribution of the residuals and transformed back into geometric means.
The β-cell function was measured using the oral disposition index.