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. 2022 Jun 22;116(4):1078–1090. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqac174

TABLE 1.

Baseline descriptive characteristics of MASALA participants by quartiles of plant-based diet indices1

Quartiles
Characteristic 1 2 3 4 P-trend
Overall plant-based diet index
 Participants, n 211 229 211 240
 Mean ± SEM 51.1 ± 0.25 58.6 ± 0.12 63.8 ± 0.10 71.1 ± 0.24
 Age, years 54.8 ± 0.68 55.5 ± 0.62 54.7 ± 0.64 55.9 ± 0.63 0.41
 Sex, % female 47.4 42.4 52.6 46.3 0.66
 Years lived in the US, years 29.1 ± 0.69 26.6 ± 0.62 26.2 ± 0.64 26.3 ± 0.63 0.004
 Birth country — — — — 0.09
  India 74.4 83.8 87.7 88.3
  Pakistan 9 5.24 0.95 2.5
  Bangladesh 1.42 0.87 0 0
  Nepal 0.47 0 0.47 0.83
  Sri Lanka 2.84 0.87 0.47 0
  Other 11.9 9.22 10.41 8.37
 Bachelor's degree or more, % 84.4 86.0 88.6 91.7 0.01
 Questionnaire in Hindi or Urdu, % 4.27 5.24 4.74 3.33 0.56
 Family income >$75,000, % 74.5 73.4 75.6 70.9 0.49
 Sum of cultural traditions measures2 15.8 ± 0.45 14.1 ± 0.41 12.9 ± 0.43 13.3 ± 0.42 <0.0001
 Smoking category, %
  Never 79.1 80.4 82.9 90.0 0.001
  Former 16.1 15.7 15.6 7.5
  Current 4.7 3.9 1.4 2.5
 Tobacco pack-year consumption 2.53 ± 0.42 1.68 ± 0.38 1.48 ± 0.40 0.50 ± 0.39 0.001
 Alcohol, % with 1+ drinks/week 43.1 38.0 26.1 25.0 <0.0001
 Physical activity, MET-min/week 9970 ± 289 10113 ± 265 10343 ± 275 10159 ± 271 0.56
 TV watching, min/week 565 ± 33 547 ± 30 536 ± 31 558 ± 31 0.85
 BMI, kg/m2 26.7 ± 0.29 26.1 ± 0.27 25.9 ± 0.28 25.4 ± 0.28 0.002
 Waist circumference, cm 93.9 ± 0.71 92.9 ± 0.65 92.4 ± 0.67 91.1 ± 0.66 0.006
 Controlled hyperlipidemia, % 77.2 78.2 84.7 77.9 0.53
 Hypertension, % 37.9 45.4 37.4 39.2 0.75
 Diabetes categories, % — — — —
  Normal 60.0 58.8 62.7 64.6 0.34
  Prediabetes 18.1 20.6 17.7 15.0
  Diabetes 21.9 20.6 19.6 20.4
 Family history of diabetes, % 61.6 52.1 52.7 55.0 0.23
 Medication use, %
  Diabetes medication 17.5 15.7 14.7 16.3 0.68
  Hypertension medication 31.3 33.6 26.5 29.6 0.38
  Cholesterol-lowering medication 32.7 31.0 25.1 29.2 0.25
 Cardiometabolic risk factors
  Triglycerides,3 mmol/L 1.14 ± 1.01 1.12 ± 1.01 1.12 ± 1.01 1.15 ± 1.01 0.396
  LDL-C, mmol/L 3.05 ± 0.059 2.95 ± 0.054 2.85 ± 0.056 2.74 ± 0.055 <0.0001
  HDL-C, mmol/L 1.32 ± 0.023 1.32 ± 0.021 1.31 ± 0.021 1.27 ± 0.021 0.099
  Fasting glucose,3 mmol/L 2.12 ± 1.006 2.10 ± 1.006 2.10 ± 1.006 2.07 ± 1.006 0.02
  HbA1c, % 6.16 ± 0.061 6.01 ± 0.056 6.08 ± 0.059 5.98 ± 0.057 0.08
  β-cell function3,4 1.32 ± 1.03 1.37 ± 1.03 1.39 ± 1.032 1.46 ± 1.03 0.04
  HOMA-IR4 1.58 ± 1.02 1.48 ± 1.02 1.47 ± 1.02 1.48 ± 1.02 0.06
  Subcutaneous fat area, cm2 245 ± 6.89 232 ± 6.42 235 ± 6.69 242 ± 6.49 0.80
  Visceral fat area, cm2 142 ± 3.79 133 ± 3.54 131 ± 3.60 130 ± 3.54 0.02
  Pericardial fat volume, cm3 61.5 ± 1.98 59.1 ± 1.84 58.0 ± 1.89 54.3 ± 1.86 0.01
  Hepatic fat attenuation, HU 53.4 ± 0.738 55.0 ± 0.69 56.4 ± 0.703 56.2 ± 0.69 0.005
  C-reactive protein,3 mg/L 1.18 ± 1.03 1.15 ± 1.03 1.13 ± 1.03 1.10 ± 1.03 0.13
  Adiponectin, mg/dL 54.9 ± 1.02 53.9 ± 1.02 56.1 ± 1.02 54.8 ± 1.02 0.77
  Coronary artery calcium score 2.24 ± 1.06 2.07 ± 1.06 2.26 ± 1.06 2.14 ± 1.06 0.80
  Common carotid IMT, mm 0.937 ± 1.01 0.93 ± 1.006 0.937 ± 1.01 0.926 ± 1.01 0.32
  Internal carotid IMT, mm3 1.06 ± 1.01 1.07 ± 1.01 1.06 ± 1.01 1.05 ± 1.01 0.26
 Foods, servings/d
  Whole grains 1.72 ± 0.07 1.88 ± 0.065 2.15 ± 0.07 2.18 ± 0.07 <0.0001
  Fruits 2.00 ± 0.10 2.40 ± 0.09 2.49 ± 0.09 2.48 ± 0.09 0.001
  Vegetables 4.15 ± 0.14 4.50 ± 0.13 4.65 ± 0.14 4.79 ± 0.13 0.001
  Herbs and spices 2.37 ± 0.10 2.89 ± 0.09 3.09 ± 0.09 3.39 ± 0.09 <0.0001
  Tea and coffee 2.13 ± 0.10 2.12 ± 0.09 2.06 ± 0.09 2.13 ± 0.09 0.91
  Nuts 0.647 ± 0.044 0.745 ± 0.04 0.773 ± 0.042 1.06 ± 0.041 <0.0001
  Legumes 0.748 ± 0.049 1.05 ± 0.045 1.2 ± 0.046 1.64 ± 0.046 <0.0001
  Vegetable oils 0.133 ± 0.015 0.127 ± 0.014 0.089 ± 0.015 0.124 ± 0.015 0.40
  Sugar-sweetened beverages 0.294 ± 0.034 0.330 ± 0.031 0.375 ± 0.032 0.358 ± 0.032 0.13
  Potatoes 0.324 ± 0.031 0.307 ± 0.028 0.427 ± 0.029 0.328 ± 0.029 0.43
  Refined grains 0.838 ± 0.051 0.786 ± 0.047 0.847 ± 0.049 1.037 ± 0.048 0.005
  Deep-fried snacks 0.433 ± 0.034 0.447 ± 0.032 0.594 ± 0.033 0.766 ± 0.032 <0.0001
  Sweets 0.537 ± 0.042 0.574 ± 0.038 0.554 ± 0.04 0.648 ± 0.039 0.09
  Coconut 0.051 ± 0.015 0.07 ± 0.013 0.084 ± 0.014 0.142 ± 0.014 <0.0001
  Dairy 3.78 ± 0.13 3.62 ± 0.12 3.47 ± 0.12 3.25 ± 0.12 0.002
  Animal fat 0.603 ± 0.045 0.457 ± 0.041 0.434 ± 0.042 0.263 ± 0.042 <0.0001
  Meat 0.630 ± 0.029 0.396 ± 0.027 0.194 ± 0.028 0.001 ± 0.027 <0.0001
  Egg 0.418 ± 0.025 0.307 ± 0.023 0.186 ± 0.024 0.078 ± 0.023 <0.0001
  Fish and seafood 0.259 ± 0.015 0.16 ± 0.014 0.089 ± 0.015 0.019 ± 0.014 <0.0001
  Miscellaneous animal foods 0.285 ± 0.016 0.225 ± 0.015 0.166 ± 0.015 0.108 ± 0.015 <0.0001
  Milk desserts 0.193 ± 0.013 0.164 ± 0.012 0.158 ± 0.012 0.134 ± 0.012 0.001
Healthy plant–based diet index
 Participants, n 217 244 218 212
 Mean ± SEM 50.1 ± 0.29 59.2 ± 0.13 65.4 ± 0.11 73.2 ± 0.27
 Age, years 53.0 ± 0.64 54.2 ± 0.59 56.0 ± 0.62 58.0 ± 0.64 <0.0001
 Sex % female 28.6 46.7 55.1 58.0 <0.0001
 Years lived in the US, years 29.1 ± 0.67 26.7 ± 0.60 25.9 ± 0.63 26.4 ± 0.64 0.002
 Birth country — — — — 0.0003
  India 74.7 82.4 88.1 90.1
  Pakistan 7.83 5.74 2.29 1.42
  Bangladesh 0.46 0.82 0.92 0
  Nepal 0 0.82 0.46 0.47
  Sri Lanka 1.84 2.46 2.29 5.66
  Other 15.2 9.43 7.8 7.1
 Bachelor's degree or more, % 85.3 88.5 89.0 88.2 0.35
 Questionnaire in Hindi or Urdu, % 3.69 6.56 4.59 2.36 0.33
 Family income >$75,000, % 72.1 74.0 77.6 70.2 0.90
 Sum of cultural traditions measures2 14.7 ± 0.44 14.1 ± 0.40 14.0 ± 0.42 13.2 ± 0.44 0.03
 Smoking category, %
  Never 71.0 84.0 86.7 91.5 <0.0001
  Former 21.2 15.2 11.5 6.1
  Current 7.8 0.8 1.8 2.4
 Tobacco pack-year consumption 3.210 ± 0.41 1.33 ± 0.37 1.04 ± 0.39 0.52 ± 0.40 <0.0001
 Alcohol, % with 1+ drinks/week 45.6 35.7 29.4 20.3 <0.0001
 Physical activity, MET-min/week 10102 ± 282 9934 ± 256 10013 ± 271 10570 ± 279 0.25
 TV watching, min/week 640 ± 32 521 ± 29 517 ± 30 533 ± 31 0.02
 BMI, kg/m2 26.5 ± 0.29 26.5 ± 0.26 25.6 ± 0.28 25.3 ± 0.28 0.002
 Waist circumference, cm 93.4 ± 0.69 93.8 ± 0.63 91.6 ± 0.66 91.1 ± 0.68 0.004
 Controlled hyperlipidemia, % 75.9 77.6 80.8 83.9 0.03
 Hypertension, % 37.5 40.9 36.7 45.3 0.20
 Diabetes categories, %
  Normal 55.6 62.6 66.5 61.4 0.38
  Prediabetes 23.6 15.6 16.1 16.2
  Diabetes 20.8 21.8 17.4 22.4
 Family history of diabetes, % 58.4 53.6 54.8 54.5 0.51
 Medication use, %
  Diabetes medication 13.8 17.2 14.7 18.4 0.33
  Hypertension medication 27.2 30.7 28.9 34.4 0.16
  Cholesterol-lowering medication 27.2 27.5 27.5 36.3 0.50
 Cardiometabolic risk factors
  Triglycerides,3 mmol/L 1.14 ± 1.01 1.12 ± 1.01 1.11 ± 1.01 1.16 ± 1.01 0.72
  LDL-C, mmol/L 3.02 ± 0.058 2.90 ± 0.052 2.87 ± 0.055 2.78 ± 0.057 0.005
  HDL-C, mmol/L 1.30 ± 0.022 1.30 ± 0.02 1.32 ± 0.021 1.30 ± 0.022 0.66
  Fasting glucose,3 mmol/L 2.11 ± 1.01 2.10 ± 1.006 2.08 ± 1.01 2.09 ± 1.01 0.28
  HbA1c, % 6.12 ± 0.06 6.11 ± 0.054 6.00 ± 0.057 5.99 ± 0.059 0.09
  β-cell function3,4 1.32 ± 1.03 1.41 ± 1.03 1.44 ± 1.03 1.39 ± 1.03 0.23
  HOMA-IR4 1.57 ± 1.02 1.56 ± 1.02 1.43 ± 1.02 1.43 ± 1.02 <0.0001
  Subcutaneous fat area, cm2 244 ± 6.71 247 ± 6.17 239 ± 6.58 224 ± 6.66 0.04
  Visceral fat area, cm2 141 ± 3.67 141 ± 3.34 127 ± 3.56 125 ± 3.67 <0.0001
  Pericardial fat volume, cm3 63.1 ± 1.94 59.4 ± 1.75 55.5 ± 1.86 54.2 ± 1.92 0.001
  Hepatic fat attenuation, HU 53.4 ± 0.723 54.7 ± 0.652 56.1 ± 0.696 57.0 ± 0.712 <0.0001
  C-reactive protein,3 mg/L 1.21 ± 1.03 1.18 ± 1.03 1.08 ± 1.03 1.09 ± 1.03 0.006
  Adiponectin, mg/dL 53.8 ± 1.02 53.4 ± 1.02 55.7 ± 1.02 56.9 ± 1.02 0.02
  Coronary artery calcium score 2.21 ± 1.06 2.13 ± 1.06 2.27 ± 1.06 2.10 ± 1.06 0.71
  Common carotid IMT, mm 0.939 ± 1.01 0.938 ± 1.01 0.93 ± 1.01 0.921 ± 1.01 0.03
  Internal carotid IMT, mm3 1.08 ± 1.01 1.062 ± 1.01 1.058 ± 1.01 1.041 ± 1.01 0.006
Foods, servings/d
  Whole grains 1.50 ± 0.067 1.97 ± 0.06 2.10 ± 0.06 2.38 ± 0.07 <0.0001
  Fruits 1.90 ± 0.094 2.17 ± 0.085 2.51 ± 0.09 2.84 ± 0.093 <0.0001
  Vegetables 3.78 ± 0.136 4.44 ± 0.123 4.67 ± 0.131 5.25 ± 0.135 <0.0001
  Herbs and spices 2.45 ± 0.093 3.01 ± 0.085 3.06 ± 0.090 3.26 ± 0.092 <0.0001
  Tea and coffee 2.01 ± 0.094 2.183 ± 0.085 2.23 ± 0.090 2.00 ± 0.093 0.951
  Nuts 0.539 ± 0.042 0.744 ± 0.038 0.886 ± 0.040 1.09 ± 0.041 <0.0001
  Legumes 0.716 ± 0.047 1.122 ± 0.043 1.353 ± 0.046 1.581 ± 0.047 <0.0001
  Sugar-sweetened beverages 0.11 ± 0.015 0.106 ± 0.014 0.129 ± 0.015 0.13 ± 0.015 0.25
  Potatoes 0.503 ± 0.033 0.351 ± 0.03 0.272 ± 0.031 0.237 ± 0.032 <0.0001
  Refined grains 0.385 ± 0.03 0.39 ± 0.027 0.312 ± 0.029 0.288 ± 0.03 0.008
  Deep-fried snacks 1.236 ± 0.048 0.926 ± 0.043 0.803 ± 0.046 0.558 ± 0.047 <0.0001
  Sweets 0.610 ± 0.034 0.630 ± 0.031 0.587 ± 0.033 0.427 ± 0.034 <0.0001
  Coconut 0.849 ± 0.039 0.629 ± 0.035 0.504 ± 0.037 0.338 ± 0.038 <0.0001
  Dairy 0.115 ± 0.014 0.079 ± 0.013 0.117 ± 0.014 0.044 ± 0.014 0.006
  Animal fat 3.46 ± 0.122 3.42 ± 0.111 3.73 ± 0.118 3.49 ± 0.121 0.50
  Meat 0.624 ± 0.043 0.494 ± 0.039 0.357 ± 0.042 0.254 ± 0.043 <0.0001
  Egg 0.585 ± 0.03 0.313 ± 0.027 0.195 ± 0.029 0.093 ± 0.03 <0.0001
  Fish and seafood 0.363 ± 0.025 0.256 ± 0.023 0.195 ± 0.024 0.154 ± 0.025 <0.0001
  Miscellaneous animal foods 0.218 ± 0.016 0.14 ± 0.014 0.094 ± 0.015 0.061 ± 0.015 <0.0001
  Milk desserts 0.283 ± 0.016 0.205 ± 0.014 0.166 ± 0.015 0.119 ± 0.016 <0.0001
Unhealthy plant–based diet index
 Participants, n 229 224 217 221
 Mean ± SEM 51.9 ± 0.24 59.2 ± 0.10 63.9 ± 0.09 70.4 ± 0.20
 Age, years 56.3 ± 0.64 55.6 ± 0.62 55.8 ± 0.64 53.4 ± 0.65 0.005
 Sex, % female 53.2 45.1 43.3 46.2 0.12
 Years lived in the US, years 28.1 ± 0.64 27.7 ± 0.63 27.0 ± 0.64 25.1 ± 0.65 0.002
 Birth country — — — — 0.07
  India 81.2 79.5 88.0 86.4
  Pakistan 5.68 6.7 3.23 1.81
  Bangladesh 0.44 0.89 0.46 0.45
  Nepal 0.87 0.45 0 0.45
  Sri Lanka 0.87 0.45 1.38 1.36
  Other 10.9 12.1 6.90 9.48
 Bachelor's degree or more, % 89.1 86.2 88.5 87.3 0.76
 Questionnaire in Hindi or Urdu, % 1.31 5.36 6.45 4.52 0.08
 Family income >$75,000, % 74.4 75.6 73.2 70.8 0.32
 Sum of cultural traditions measures2 15.0 ± 0.43 14.2 ± 0.42 14.3 ± 0.42 12.4 ± 0.43 <0.0001
 Smoking category, %
  Never 80.8 82.1 83.4 86.9 0.05
  Former 14.9 14.7 12.9 11.8
  Current 4.4 3.13 3.69 1.36
 Tobacco pack-year consumption 1.56 ± 0.40 2.07 ± 0.39 1.15 ± 0.40 1.25 ± 0.41 0.35
 Alcohol, % with 1+ drinks/week 39.3 35.7 31.8 24.4 0.0006
 Physical activity, MET-min/week 10432 ± 273 10212 ± 267 10283 ± 273 9644 ± 278 0.07
 TV watching, min/week 520 ± 31 574 ± 30 555 ± 31 559 ± 31 0.48
 BMI, kg/m2 26.1 ± 0.28 26.3 ± 0.27 25.9 ± 0.28 25.8 ± 0.29 0.39
 Waist circumference, cm 93.0 ± 0.67 92.7 ± 0.66 92.7 ± 0.67 91.7 ± 0.69 0.22
 Controlled hyperlipidemia, % 75.3 79.7 76.7 86.2 0.02
 Hypertension, % 43.7 39.7 36.9 39.8 0.32
 Diabetes categories, %
  Normal 60.1 62.8 57.7 65.6 0.54
  Prediabetes 18.4 17.5 20.9 14.5
  Diabetes 21.5 19.7 21.4 19.9
 Family history of diabetes, % 58.3 55.8 52.7 54.2 0.32
 Medication use, %
  Diabetes medication 17.5 13.0 17.1 16.7 0.87
  Hypertension medication 30.6 30.4 30.9 29.4 0.83
  Cholesterol-lowering medication 29.7 31.3 28.6 28.5 0.65
 Cardiometabolic risk factors
  Triglycerides,3 mmol/L 1.12 ± 1.01 1.12 ± 1.01 1.14 ± 1.01 1.15 ± 1.01 0.14
  LDL-C, mmol/L 2.98 ± 0.056 2.87 ± 0.055 2.90 ± 0.056 2.81 ± 0.057 0.06
  HDL-C, mmol/L 1.34 ± 0.021 1.31 ± 0.021 1.28 ± 0.021 1.29 ± 0.022 0.06
  Fasting glucose,3 mmol/L 2.11 ± 1.01 2.09 ± 1.01 2.11 ± 1.01 2.07 ± 1.01 0.035
  HbA1c, % 6.11 ± 0.06 6.01 ± 0.06 6.05 ± 0.06 6.04 ± 0.06 0.47
  β-cell function3,4 1.34 ± 1.03 1.38 ± 1.03 1.42 ± 1.03 1.42 ± 1.03 0.18
  HOMA-IR4 1.52 ± 1.02 1.50 ± 1.02 1.50 ± 1.02 1.47 ± 1.02 0.31
  Subcutaneous fat area, cm2 236 ± 6.70 239 ± 6.34 241 ± 6.57 239 ± 6.71 0.78
  Visceral fat area, cm2 130 ± 3.62 139 ± 3.52 132 ± 3.60 133 ± 3.67 0.74
  Pericardial fat volume, cm3 57.2 ± 1.89 58.6 ± 1.84 57.2 ± 1.88 59.3 ± 1.93 0.57
  Hepatic fat attenuation, HU 55.5 ± 0.706 55.3 ± 0.687 55.3 ± 0.703 55.1 ± 0.721 0.71
  C-reactive protein,3 mg/L 1.13 ± 1.03 1.16 ± 1.03 1.11 ± 1.03 1.15 ± 1.03 0.89
  Adiponectin, mg/dL 56.2 ± 1.02 53.2 ± 1.02 55.2 ± 1.02 54.9 ± 1.02 0.58
  Coronary artery calcium score 2.21 ± 1.06 2.28 ± 1.058 2.07 ± 1.06 2.13 ± 1.06 0.46
  Common carotid IMT, mm 0.925 ± 1.01 0.937 ± 1.01 0.934 ± 1.01 0.932 ± 1.01 0.46
  Internal carotid IMT, mm3 1.06 ± 1.01 1.05 ± 1.01 1.06 ± 1.01 1.07 ± 1.01 0.45
 Foods, servings/d
  Whole grains 2.10 ± 0.068 2.02 ± 0.066 1.88 ± 0.067 1.94 ± 0.069 0.06
  Fruits 2.71 ± 0.093 2.43 ± 0.09 2.27 ± 0.092 1.97 ± 0.094 <0.0001
  Vegetables 5.32 ± 0.131 4.77 ± 0.128 4.24 ± 0.131 3.74 ± 0.133 <0.0001
  Herbs/spices 3.22 ± 0.091 3.15 ± 0.089 2.90 ± 0.091 2.51 ± 0.093 <0.0001
  Tea and coffee 2.57 ± 0.088 2.18 ± 0.086 2.12 ± 0.088 1.54 ± 0.09 <0.0001
  Nuts 1.04 ± 0.041 0.882 ± 0.04 0.749 ± 0.041 0.572 ± 0.042 <0.0001
  Legumes 1.15 ± 0.05 1.16 ± 0.049 1.17 ± 0.05 1.29 ± 0.051 0.09
  Sugar-sweetened beverages 0.141 ± 0.015 0.143 ± 0.014 0.110 ± 0.015 0.078 ± 0.015 0.002
  Potatoes 0.200 ± 0.032 0.312 ± 0.031 0.380 ± 0.032 0.479 ± 0.032 <0.0001
  Refined grains 0.246 ± 0.029 0.346 ± 0.028 0.365 ± 0.029 0.43 ± 0.03 <0.0001
  Deep-fried snacks 0.521 ± 0.046 0.812 ± 0.045 0.964 ± 0.046 1.25 ± 0.047 <0.0001
  Sweets 0.325 ± 0.032 0.542 ± 0.031 0.646 ± 0.032 0.765 ± 0.033 <0.0001
  Coconut 0.400 ± 0.039 0.629 ± 0.038 0.614 ± 0.039 0.69 ± 0.04 <0.0001
  Dairy 0.028 ± 0.014 0.073 ± 0.013 0.137 ± 0.014 0.12 ± 0.014 <0.0001
  Animal fat 4.05 ± 0.117 3.51 ± 0.114 3.38 ± 0.117 3.11 ± 0.119 <0.0001
  Meat 0.48 ± 0.043 0.416 ± 0.042 0.449 ± 0.043 0.387 ± 0.044 0.203
  Egg 0.407 ± 0.031 0.349 ± 0.03 0.272 ± 0.031 0.147 ± 0.031 <0.0001
  Fish and seafood 0.380 ± 0.024 0.311 ± 0.023 0.173 ± 0.024 0.093 ± 0.024 <0.0001
  Miscellaneous animal foods 0.227 ± 0.015 0.111 ± 0.015 0.115 ± 0.015 0.055 ± 0.015 <0.0001
  Milk desserts 0.224 ± 0.016 0.214 ± 0.015 0.178 ± 0.016 0.155 ± 0.016 0.001
1

Values are age, sex, and calorie-adjusted means (SEM) or percentages, calculated using linear regression for continuous variables and chi-square tests for categorical variables. Abbreviations: HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; HU, Hounsfield units; IMT, intima media thickness; MASALA, Mediators of Atherosclerosis in South Asians Living in America; MET, metabolic equivalents of task.

2

Higher scores indicate weaker traditional cultural beliefs. 

3

Values were log-transformed to obtain a normal distribution of the residuals and transformed back into geometric means.

4

The β-cell function was measured using the oral disposition index.