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. 2022 Dec 16;12:21779. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-26457-8

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Viral dsRNA in COVID-19 plasma exosomes and recipient cells. (a) Quantification of dsRNA in COVID-19 plasma exosomes from patients (Pt2291 to Pt2745, average age 49.6) upon hospitalization. J1.1 exo, HIV + J1.1 T-cell exosomes; Jurkat exo, Jurkat T cell exosomes; ctrl, plasma exosomes derived from non-COVID donors. Data represent average ± SD, n = 3. The experiment was repeated 3 times independently. (b) dsRNA quantification in exosomes from control VERO E6 cells (ctrl), SARS-CoV-2-ΔN/EGFP VERO E6 cells (COV), and VERO E6 cells transfected with the UK variant of SARS-CoV-2-ΔN/EGFP (UK COV2). J1.1, J1.1 T-cell exosomes; del-COV2 and del-UK COV2, exosome-depleted cultural supernatants. Data represent average ± SD, n = 3. The experiment was repeated 3 times independently. (c) MicroBeads separated CD3⁺ lymphocytes from PBMC were treated with COVID-19 plasma exosomes from patients (Pt2764 to Pt2792, average age 61.2) or J1.1 HIV + T-cell exosomes (J1.1 exo) for 30 min, followed by dsRNA measurement in CD3⁺ lymphocytes. ctrl, non-COVID plasma exosomes. Data represent average ± SD of one experiment out of 3 independent repeats, n = 3. (d) Immunoblot of plasma exosome proteins (100 µg per lane) from COVID-19 patients (Pt2291to Pt2460, average age 42) and (e) A549-hsHA-Nflag cell exosomes overexpressing N and S proteins (A549 N&S). S-protein, SARS-CoV-2 S protein; N-protein, SARS-CoV-2 N protein; S1RBD, S protein blotted using the antibody to S1 receptor binding domain (RBD). CD9 (in d) and CD63 (in e) blots were used as exosome markers on the same blot.