Table 3.
Summary of the adsorption potential of biochar and modified biochar towards different types of PCs
| PCs | Feedstock | Pyrolysis conditions | Modification scheme | Specific surface area (S, m2 g−1) and total pore volume (V, cm3 g−1) | Isotherm model | Kinetic model | Adsorption conditions | Adsorption capacity (mg g−1) | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Amoxicillin (AMX) | Banana pseudostem | 350 °C for 2 h at 10 °C min−1 | CoFe2O4 impregnation | S=100.9 | L | PSO |
AD=50 mg L−1, pH=7, T=25 °C |
99.99 | [89] |
| 650 °C for 2 h at 10 °C min−1 | S=190.5 | L | PSO |
AD=50 mg L−1, pH>7, T=25 °C |
99.76 | ||||
| Acetaminophen (ACE) | Oil palm fiber | 550 °C for 30 min at 5 °C min−1 | ZnCl2 impregnation |
S=76.050 V=0.12 |
F | PSO |
AD=1 g L−1, pH=3 |
7.3 | [28] |
| Wood chips | 800 °C for 7 h | Ball milling | S=841 | L | PSO |
AD=0.2 g, C0=100 mg L−1, pH=6, T=25 °C |
196 | [23] | |
| Pomelo peels | 700 °C for 3 h | – | S=1033 | L | E | AD=0.5 g L−1, pH=7, t=2 h | 147 | [29] | |
| Pure glucose | 900 °C for 3 h | Pre-pyrolysis and hydrothermal treatment | S=1292 | L | E | AD=0.5 g L−1, pH=7, t=2 h | 286 | ||
| Cephalexin (CPX) | Oil palm fiber | 550 °C for 30 min at 5 °C min−1 | ZnCl2 impregnation |
S=76.050 V=0.12 |
L | PSO | AD=1 g L−1, pH=3 | 7.9 | [28] |
| Ciprofloxacin (CFX) | Used tea leaves | 450 °C at 30 min | – |
S=8.06 V=0.01 |
L | PSO | pH=6 and T=40 °C | 238.1 | [31] |
| Corncobs | 600 °C for 2 h | – | S=306 | L | PSO | pH=4 | 0.4 | [116] | |
| MSW | 450 °C for 4 h at 15 °C min−1 | – | S=4.33 | H | PSO | AD=1 g L−1, pH=7, C0 = 25 g L−1 | 122.16 | [30] | |
| Composite with MMT | S=6.51 | H | E | AD=1 g L − 1 pH=7, C0=25 g L−1 | 167.36 | ||||
| Caffeine (CAF) | Pine needles | 650 °C | Oxidized with boiling nitric acid | NA | L | PSO | AD=0.05 g, T=40 °C, pH=4 | 6.54 | [117] |
| Bovine bone | 650 °C | AlCl3 and MgCl2 loading |
S=46.3 V=0.12 |
RP | PSO | t=20 min, T=40 °C | 26.21 | [96] | |
| Sodium diclofenac (SD) | Rice hull | Torrefied at 350 °C for 1 h | – | NA | L | PSO | AD=0.5 g, pH=2, C0=100 mg L−1 | 3.3 | [118] |
| Moringa seeds powder | 450 °C for 2 h at 10 °C min−1 | Chemical activation with H3PO4 | NA | SM | PSO | AD=0.4 g L−1, pH=5 | 100.87 | [27] | |
| Ofloxacin (OFL) | Sludge of textile effluent treatment plant rich in iron chloride | 400 °C for 4 h at 10 °C min−1 | S=91.00 | RP-F | IPD | AD=5 g L−1, T=25 °C, pH=6, t=5 h | 19.7 | [99] | |
| Ketoprofen (KETO) | Walnut shell | 600 °C for 2 h | Microwave treatment of walnut shell and FeCl3 | S=786 | L | PSO | AD=0.5 g L−1, T=25 °C, pH=3, t=2 h | 444 | [26] |
| Levofloxacin (LEV) | Corn husks | 300 °C for 1 h at 5 °C min−1 | Pre-pyrolysis FeCl3 impregnation | S=112.45 | L | IPD | AD=8 g L−1, C0=200 mg L−1 | 56.6 | [35] |
| Post-pyrolysis FeCl3 impregnation | S=94.9 | L | PSO | AD=8 g L−1, C0=200 mg L−1 | 273.7 | ||||
| Ibuprofen (IBP) | Coconut shell | 450 °C for 1 h | Steam activation at 550 ◦C | S=726 | L | PFO | AD=2.66 g L−1, pH=2, C0=20 mg L−1, T=20 °C, t=18 h | 9.69 | [22] |
| Chemical activation with H3PO4 | S=805 | 12.16 | |||||||
| Date stone seeds | 700 °C for 1 h | Steam activation |
S=513 V=0.2 |
L | PSO | AD=3 g L−1, pH=2, C0=20 mg L−1, T=20 °C | 9.69 | [88] | |
| Chemical activation with H3PO4 |
S=342 V=0.13 |
L | PSO | 12.16 | |||||
| Wood apple fruit shell | 650 °C for 1 h at 65 °C per 15 min | – | S=4.4 | L | PSO | AD = 0.33 g L−1, pH = 3, T = 15 °C | 5 | [24] | |
| Steam activation | S=308 | L | PSO | AD=1 g L−1, pH=2, T=20 °C | 12.65 | ||||
| Wood chips | 800 °C for 7 h | – | S=841 | L | PSO | AD=0.2 g, C0=100 mg L−1, pH=6, T=25 °C | 132 | [23] | |
| Mung bean husk | 550 ℃ for 1 h at 55 ℃ per 15 min | Steam activation at 650 ℃ | NA | L | PSO |
AD=0.1 g L−1, pH=2, C0=20 mg L−1, t=2 h, T=20 °C |
59.76 | [119] | |
| Naproxen (NPX) | Walnut shell | 600 °C for 2 h | Microwave treatment of walnut shell and FeCl3 | S=786 | L | PSO | AD=0.5 g L−1, T=25 °C, pH=3, t=2 h | 533 | [26] |
| Tetracycline (TC) | Rice straw | 700 °C for 2 h | Chemical activation with H3PO4 |
S=372.2 V=0.23 |
L | PSO | T=25 °C, pH=9 | 552 | [120] |
| Swine manure | 700 °C for 2 h | Chemical activation with H3PO4 |
S=319.04 V=0.25 |
L | PSO | T=25 °C, pH=9 | 365.4 | ||
| MSW | 500 °C for 30 min | Pre-pyrolysis treatment with MMT | S=8.72 | F | PSO |
AD=2 g L−1, pH=7, t=12 h C0=20 mg L−1 |
77.96 | [121] | |
| Food and garden waste | 300 °C for 12 h | – | NA | F | E | AD=5 g L−1, C0=100 mg L−1, pH=7 | 9.45 | [92] | |
| Rice straw | 700 °C for 2 h at 26 °C min−1 | – |
S=27.66 V=0.06 |
L | NA | AD=60 mg, T=25 °C, pH=5.5 | 14.16 | [122] | |
| Salicylic acid (SA) | Walnut shell | 600 °C for 2 h | Microwave treatment of walnut shell and FeCl3 | S=786 | L | PSO | AD=0.5 g L−1, T=25 °C, pH=3, t=2 h | 683 | [26] |
| Sulfamethoxazole (SMX) | Eucalyptus globulus wood | 400 °C for 2 h at 11 °C min−1 | Chemical activation with H3PO4 | NA | L | NA | T=(25±0.5) °C | 28.29 | [32] |
| Raw bamboo | 450 °C for 2 h | Ball milling | S=299 | L | E | AD=0.3 g L−1, T=25 °C, pH=3, t=2 h | 25.7 | [33] | |
| Sulfamethazine (SMT) | Tea waste | 700 °C for 2 h at 7 °C min−1 | Steam activation | S=421.31 | L | NA | pH=3 | 33.81 | [123] |
| Eucalyptus globulus wood | 400 °C for 2 h at 11 °C min−1 | Chemical activation with H3PO4 | NA | L | NA | T=(25±0.5) °C | 20.71 | [32] | |
| Sulfapyridine (SPY) | Hickory chips | 450 °C for 2 h | – | S=299 | L | E | AD=0.3 g L−1, T=25 °C, pH=3, t=2 h | 58.6 | [33] |
A adsorption capacity, AD adsorbent dose, C0 initial adsorbate concentration, E Elovich model, F Freundlich isotherm model, H Hill isotherm, h hour, IPD intra-particle diffusion model, L Langmuir, MMT montmorillonite, NA not available, PFO pseudo first order, PSO pseudo second order, RP Redlich–Peterson isotherm, S specific surface area determined from N2 adsorption/desorption measurements according to the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller equation, T temperature, t time, V total pore volume