Table 2.
Main effects on change in psychological distress.
| Model 1: |
Model 2: |
Model 3: |
Model 4: |
Model 5: |
Model 6: |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| VARIABLES | Change in psychological distress | Change in psychological distress | Change in psychological distress | Change in psychological distress | Change in psychological distress | Change in psychological distress |
| Model estimation | OLS | OLS | OLS | OLS | OLS | First difference |
| State dummies included in model | No | No | No | No | Yes | No |
| Change in reduced mobility | 0.00570∗∗∗ | 0.00576∗∗∗ | 0.00573∗∗∗ | 0.00441∗∗ | 0.00448∗∗ | 0.00820∗∗∗ |
| (0.00193) | (0.00197) | (0.00206) | (0.00191) | (0.00203) | (0.000874) | |
| Change in COVID-19 state incidence proportion | 7.38e-06 | 2.02e-05 | 0.000184 | 4.99e-05 | ||
| (4.41e-05) | (4.13e-05) | (0.000160) | (3.78e-05) | |||
| Change in the chance of running out of money | 0.00172a | 0.00160∗∗ | 0.00131∗∗ | |||
| (0.000627) | (0.000631) | (0.000574) | ||||
| Change in the chance of getting COVID-19 | 0.00164∗∗ | 0.00181a | 0.00167∗∗ | |||
| (0.000642) | (0.000666) | (0.000634) | ||||
| Age | −0.00125 | −0.00125 | −0.00104 | −0.00137 | ||
| (0.000987) | (0.000987) | (0.00103) | (0.00106) | |||
| Male | −0.0663∗∗ | −0.0663∗∗ | −0.0650∗∗ | −0.0649∗∗ | ||
| (0.0251) | (0.0251) | (0.0252) | (0.0253) | |||
| White | 0.0237 | 0.0237 | 0.0259 | 0.00313 | ||
| (0.0347) | (0.0348) | (0.0337) | (0.0337) | |||
| High school graduate | −0.157∗∗ | −0.156∗∗ | −0.160∗∗ | −0.171∗∗ | ||
| (0.0729) | (0.0725) | (0.0730) | (0.0751) | |||
| Some college | −0.106∗ | −0.106∗ | −0.109∗ | −0.110∗ | ||
| (0.0628) | (0.0625) | (0.0627) | (0.0630) | |||
| Bachelor's degree or more | −0.111∗ | −0.111∗ | −0.101 | −0.104 | ||
| (0.0629) | (0.0627) | (0.0625) | (0.0633) | |||
| Married (spouse not there) | −0.209∗∗ | −0.209∗∗ | −0.201∗∗ | −0.214∗∗ | ||
| (0.0932) | (0.0930) | (0.0934) | (0.0972) | |||
| Separated | −0.00116 | −0.00106 | −0.0101 | −0.0228 | ||
| (0.0934) | (0.0935) | (0.0938) | (0.0931) | |||
| Divorced | −0.0916∗∗ | −0.0917∗∗ | −0.0948∗∗ | −0.0906∗∗ | ||
| (0.0425) | (0.0427) | (0.0413) | (0.0427) | |||
| Widowed | 0.0281 | 0.0280 | 0.0299 | 0.0245 | ||
| (0.0513) | (0.0510) | (0.0517) | (0.0531) | |||
| Never married | −0.0462 | −0.0464 | −0.0445 | −0.0398 | ||
| (0.0332) | (0.0328) | (0.0338) | (0.0331) | |||
| Employed | 0.0151 | 0.0151 | 0.0218 | 0.0229 | ||
| (0.0258) | (0.0258) | (0.0272) | (0.0249) | |||
| First-generation immigrant | −0.0334 | −0.0335 | −0.0344 | −0.0496 | ||
| (0.0354) | (0.0353) | (0.0337) | (0.0334) | |||
| Second-generation immigrant | 0.0236 | 0.0235 | 0.0267 | 0.0241 | ||
| (0.0438) | (0.0439) | (0.0446) | (0.0458) | |||
| Third-generation immigrant | 0.0505 | 0.0502 | 0.0538 | 0.0509 | ||
| (0.0338) | (0.0342) | (0.0348) | (0.0350) | |||
| Unknown immigrant status | −0.0965 | −0.0966 | −0.102 | −0.0972 | ||
| (0.0703) | (0.0704) | (0.0714) | (0.0730) | |||
| HH income $5 k to $7499 | 0.205 | 0.204 | 0.205 | 0.218 | ||
| (0.146) | (0.145) | (0.143) | (0.138) | |||
| HH income $7.5 k to $9999 | 0.270∗ | 0.270∗ | 0.254∗ | 0.262∗ | ||
| (0.150) | (0.150) | (0.147) | (0.141) | |||
| HH income $10 k to $12,499 | 0.146 | 0.147 | 0.147 | 0.140 | ||
| (0.131) | (0.131) | (0.128) | (0.129) | |||
| HH income $12.5 k to $14,499 | 0.316∗∗ | 0.316∗∗ | 0.325∗∗ | 0.342∗∗ | ||
| (0.142) | (0.141) | (0.142) | (0.143) | |||
| HH income $15 k to $19,999 | 0.155 | 0.155 | 0.168 | 0.187 | ||
| (0.128) | (0.128) | (0.129) | (0.124) | |||
| HH income $20 k to $24,999 | 0.255∗∗ | 0.255∗∗ | 0.269∗∗ | 0.284∗∗ | ||
| (0.117) | (0.117) | (0.117) | (0.119) | |||
| HH income $25 k to $29,999 | 0.190∗ | 0.189∗ | 0.194∗ | 0.208∗ | ||
| (0.113) | (0.113) | (0.113) | (0.114) | |||
| HH income $30 k to $34,999 | 0.167∗ | 0.167∗ | 0.176∗ | 0.180∗ | ||
| (0.0951) | (0.0951) | (0.0940) | (0.0965) | |||
| HH income $35 k to $39,999 | 0.0989 | 0.0987 | 0.112 | 0.133 | ||
| (0.113) | (0.113) | (0.114) | (0.112) | |||
| HH income $40 k to $49,999 | 0.132 | 0.132 | 0.145 | 0.151 | ||
| (0.109) | (0.109) | (0.107) | (0.110) | |||
| HH income $50 k to $59,999 | 0.242∗∗ | 0.241∗∗ | 0.262∗∗ | 0.280a | ||
| (0.102) | (0.102) | (0.0988) | (0.101) | |||
| HH income $60 k to $74,999 | 0.221∗∗ | 0.221∗∗ | 0.239∗∗ | 0.247∗∗ | ||
| (0.0974) | (0.0973) | (0.0975) | (0.0980) | |||
| HH income $75 k to $99,999 | 0.216∗∗ | 0.216∗∗ | 0.233∗∗ | 0.246∗∗ | ||
| (0.101) | (0.101) | (0.0998) | (0.0997) | |||
| HH income $100 k to $149,999 | 0.248∗∗ | 0.248∗∗ | 0.262a | 0.280a | ||
| (0.0971) | (0.0967) | (0.0949) | (0.0949) | |||
| HH income $150 k or more | 0.202∗∗ | 0.201∗∗ | 0.216∗∗ | 0.239∗∗ | ||
| (0.0934) | (0.0931) | (0.0920) | (0.0928) | |||
| Constant | 0.0787∗∗ | 0.0819 | 0.0818 | 0.0468 | −0.143 | |
| (0.0334) | (0.111) | (0.111) | (0.112) | (0.110) | ||
| Observations | 5132 | 5132 | 5132 | 5132 | 5132 | 5132 |
| R2 | 0.004 | 0.025 | 0.025 | 0.034 | 0.058 | 0.064 |
Robust standard errors clustered by State in parenthesis. All models are weighted by survey weights.
Acronyms: OLS = Ordinary Least Squares; HH = Household.
p < 0.01, ∗∗p < 0.05, ∗p < 0.1.