Table 2.

Representative bioactivities of Polygonatum sibiricum polysaccharides.

Biological activities	Polysaccharide name	In vitro/ in vivo	Model system	Doses/duration	Effects/mechanism	Reference
Antioxidant
	PSP	In vitro	Assay	0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0 mg/mL, respectively	Scavenging IC50 rate of DPPH radical (3.07 mg/mL), ABTS (0.68 mg/mL), hydroxyl radical (1.04 mg/mL)	Bai et al. (41)
	PSP1	In vitro	Assay	0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mg/mL, respectively	Scavenging rate of DPPH, hydroxyl, superoxide radicals of PSP1 (2.0 mg/mL) were 56.3, 57.0, and 41.7%, and ABTS of PSP1 (2.0 mg/mL) was 33.3%	Wang et al. (23)
Anti-obesity	PSP	In vivo	High-fat diet (HFD)-induced rat obesity model	HFD group: rat fed a HFD diet (63.6% normal chow, 20.0% sucrose, 15.0% lard, 1.2% cholesterol, and 0.2% sodium cholate), 4 weeks Low/medium/high dose group PSP group: 200, 400 and 800 mg/kg/d, 6 weeks	Body weight, serum total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL-C levels, ALT, AST activity, MDA content, and levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6; Serum HDL-C levels, hepatic SOD, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase activity	Zeng et al. (18)
Anti-aging	PSP	In vivo	D-Gal-induced heart aging mice	Model group: D-Gal 500 mg/kg/d for 60 days; Low-dose PSP group: 200 (PSP) + 500 (D-Gal) mg/kg/d for 60 days; High-dose PSP group: 400 (PSP) + 500 (D-Gal) mg/kg/d for 60 days	Cardiac troponin, creatine kinase, p21, and p53 levels; ROS & MDA levels; SOD level; DNA damages and lipid peroxidation induced by oxidative stress (as indicated by reduced levels of 8-OHdG and 4-HNE	Ma et al. (60)
	PSP	In vivo	D-Gal-induced brain aging mice	Model group: D-Gal 50 mg/kg/d for 60 days; Low-dose PSP group: 200 (PSP) + 500 (D-Gal) mg/kg/d for 60 days; High-dose PSP group: 400 (PSP) + 500 (D-Gal) mg/kg/d for 60 days	Cognitive function during brain aging Escape latency time (p < 0.05) Number of times mice crossed the platform (p < 0.05). A total of 37, 13, and 679, circRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs, respectively, were significantly altered by PSP treatment.	Zhang et al. (61)
Immunomodulatory
	PSPC\PSPW	In vitro	RAW 264.7 cells	12.5–200 μg/mL, 12 h	Cells viability, phagocytic capacity, acid phosphatase activity, NO production	Sun et al. (22)
		In vivo	Spleen deficiency male mice model	PSP 200, 400, and 800 mg/kg, respectively	Immune functions; Reversing the decline of secretions of IL-2, IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ to a normal range
	PSP	In vivo	Cyclophosphamide (CY)-induced immunosuppressed chickens	Negative control group: regular diets + sterile saline; CY-induced group: regular diets + 80 mg/kg CY; PSP control group: regular diets + 800 mg/kg PSP + sterile saline; CY-induced + PSP group: regular diets + 800 mg/kg PSP + treated 80 mg/kg CY	Weight, morphologic integrity and function of thymus and spleen; Antioxidant by increasing SOD level and decreasing MDA level in serum; Proliferation of peripheral blood T lymphocytes; Stimulating serum immunoglobulin; Levels of immune-related cytokines (IL-2, IL-6 and IFN-γ).	Shu et al. (62)
	PSP	In vitro	Splenocytes	100, 200, and 400 mg/mL, 48 h	Proliferative responses of splenocytes;	Chen et al. (26)
		In vivo	CY-induced immunosuppressed mice	Positive control: levamisole hydrochloride 10 mg/kg; PSP-L group: 100 mg/kg; PSP-M group: 200 mg/kg; PSP-H group: 400 mg/kg; Negative control (CY); …	Expression of cytokines (TNF-α and IL-2); CD4+/CD8+ ratio T lymphocytes; Phagocytosis of mononuclear macrophages; T/B lymphocyte proliferation in the spleen of mice
	PSP1/PSP2/ PSP3/PSP4	In vitro	RAW 264.7 cells	0, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, and 400 μg/mL, 24 h	Nontoxic to macrophages (0–400 μg/mL); Phagocytosis of the RAW 264.7 cell line (effect order of PSP3>PSP2>PSP4>PSP1);	Wang et al. (25)
	PSP3	In vivo	CY-induced immunosuppressed mice	Positive group: 0.2 mL levamisole (10 mg/kg); PSP3 group: 100, 200, 400 mg/kg	Restoring organ indexes; Proliferation of splenocytes and activity of NK cell; IL-2 and TNF-α, IL-4 and IL-10 levels
Gut microbiota regulation actvitiy
	PSP	In vivo	Mice	PSP group: PSP (200 mg/kg) once a day. Control group: the same volume of distilled water	Levels of SCFAs including acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid; Relative abundance of Firmicutes and in Bacteroidetes at the phylum level; The abundance of Lactobacillus, Lachnospiraceae and Bacteroides reduced (at the genus level)	Luo et al. (27)
Osteogenic activity
	PSP50-2-1	In vitro	MC3T3-E1 cells	0.02, 0.1, and 0.5 μM, respectively, 48 h	No effect on ALP activity of the MC3T3-E1 cells	Liu et al. (15)
	PSP50-2-2	In vitro	MC3T3-E1 cells	1.29, 2.59, and 5.19 μM, respectively, 48 h	Differentiation and mineralization of MC3T3-E1 cells significantly at 2.59 and 5.19 μM	Liu et al. (15)
	PSP	In vitro	Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs)	0, 5, 10, 25, and 50 mg/L PSPs, respectively, were added to the BMSCs	Osteogenic differentiation of BMMSCs	Zhao et al. (17)
	PSP	In vitro	BMSCs	200, 300, 400, and 500 mg/mL	Proliferation of BMSCs during osteogenic differentiation; Expression of ALP, PINP, BMP-2, OCN, BSP and SPAR in osteoblasts	Zong et al. (7)
Antiglycation
	PSP	In vitro	Assay	0.75, 1.50, and 3.00 mg/mL, respectively	Presenting the strongest inhibitory activity (30.2%) at 3 mg/mL with AGEs	Zhao et al. (2)

increase, decrease, other phenomena or trends.