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The functions of TGF-β in fibrosis. Tumor cells, endothelial cells, mesenchymal stem cells, cancer-associated fibroblasts, and macrophages can induce the production and secretion of TGF-β, which induces fibrosis, including pulmonary fibrosis, hepatic fibrosis, renal fibrosis, cardiac fibrosis and systematic sclerosis, through SMAD and non-SMAD pathways
