TABLE 2.
Baseline sociodemographic and lifestyle characteristics of participants according to quartiles of dietary betaine intake1
| Characteristics | Q1 (0–104.3 mg/d) (n = 1404) | Q2 (104.4–129.9 mg/d) (n = 1403) | Q3 (130.0–160.6 mg/d) (n = 1403) | Q4 (160.7–390.0 mg/d) (n = 1403) | P value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Betaine intake, mg/d | 83.64 ± 17.18 | 117.36 ± 7.22 | 144.19 ± 8.66 | 191.71 ± 30.18 | <0.001 |
| Sex, female | 583 (41.5) | 737 (52.5) | 694 (49.5) | 693 (49.4) | <0.001 |
| Age, y | 64.71 ± 4.98 | 65.06 ± 4.80 | 65.16 ± 4.99 | 65.11 ± 4.84 | 0.058 |
| Civil status, married | 1101 (78.4) | 1058 (75.4) | 1080 (77.0) | 1088 (77.5) | 0.281 |
| Education, y | 11.96 ± 8.79 | 11.43 ± 8.21 | 11.63 ± 8.09 | 11.71 ± 7.41 | 0.380 |
| Smoking habits | 0.008 | ||||
| Smoker | 208 (14.8) | 170 (12.1) | 165 (11.8) | 162 (11.5) | |
| Former smoker | 627 (44.7) | 578 (41.2) | 595 (42.4) | 621 (44.3) | |
| Never smoker | 569 (40.5) | 655 (46.7) | 643 (45.8) | 620 (44.2) | |
| Body weight, kg | 87.04 ± 12.95 | 85.50 ± 12.72 | 86.21 ± 13.19 | 86.55 ± 12.84 | 0.015 |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 32.35 ± 3.41 | 32.47 ± 3.39 | 32.47 ± 3.46 | 32.68 ± 3.51 | 0.084 |
| Energy intake, kcal | 2458.01 ± 526.04 | 2246.19 ± 557.55 | 2335.37 ± 543.81 | 2408.39 ± 543.11 | <0.001 |
| Adherence to er-MedDiet (max: 17 points) | 8.64 ± 2.75 | 8.70 ± 2.71 | 8.35 ± 2.63 | 8.28 ± 2.61 | <0.001 |
| PA, intensity | 0.159 | ||||
| Sedentary | 859 (61.2) | 841 (59.9) | 859 (61.2) | 813 (57.9) | |
| Moderately active | 262 (18.7) | 243 (17.3) | 268 (19.1) | 287 (20.5) | |
| Active | 283 (20.2) | 319 (22.7) | 276 (19.7) | 303 (21.6) | |
| PA, MET · min/wk | 741.27 ± 464.89 | 714.59 ± 462.78 | 708.74 ± 460.20 | 706.19 ± 457.80 | 0.163 |
| Sedentary lifestyle, yes | 616 (43.9) | 608 (43.3) | 647 (46.1) | 652 (46.5) | 0.239 |
| Diabetes prevalence, yes | 390 (27.8) | 412 (29.4) | 435 (31.0) | 471 (33.6) | 0.007 |
| Diabetes medication, yes | 337 (24.0) | 367 (26.2) | 369 (26.3) | 420 (29.9) | 0.005 |
| Hypertension prevalence, yes | 1137 (81.0) | 1196 (85.2) | 1188 (84.7) | 1205 (85.9) | 0.002 |
| Hypertension medication, yes | 1078 (76.8) | 1099 (78.3) | 1107 (78.9) | 1123 (80.0) | 0.27 |
| Cholesterol medication, yes | 720 (51.3) | 706 (50.3) | 722 (51.5) | 722 (51.5) | 0.622 |
| Heart medication, yes | 125 (8.9) | 112 (8.0) | 111 (7.9) | 92 (6.6) | 0.105 |
| Depression prevalence, yes | 297 (21.2) | 321 (22.9) | 273 (19.5) | 264 (18.8) | 0.036 |
| Depression medication, yes | 329 (23.4) | 335 (23.9) | 317 (22.6) | 351 (25.0) | 0.292 |
1
Total n = 5613. Values are mean ± SD or n (%) unless otherwise indicated. Betaine intake was adjusted for residuals of energy intake. Characteristics among quartiles were compared using 1-factor ANOVA or chi-square test for continuous and categoric variables, respectively. er-MedDiet, energy-restricted traditional Mediterranean diet; MET, metabolic equivalent of task; PA, physical activity; Q, quartile.